Parthenogenetic


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This commodity deals about absolutely with beastly species. For a agnate action in plants, see Apomixis.
The asexual, all-female whiptail breed Cnemidophorus neomexicanus (center), which reproduces via parthenogenesis, is apparent belted by two beastly breed accepting males, C. inornatus (left) and C. tigris (right), which alloyed by itself to anatomy the C. neomexicanus species

Parthenogenesis (from the Greek παρθένος parthenos, "virgin", + γένεσις genesis, "birth"1) is a anatomy of asexual reproduction activate in females, area advance and development of embryos occurs afterwards fertilization by a male. In plants, parthenogenesis agency development of an antecedent from an unfertilized egg cell, and is a basic action of apomixis. The baby produced by parthenogenesis are consistently changeable in breed that use the XY sex-determination system, and macho in those that use the ZW sex-determination system.

Parthenogenesis occurs by itself in some invertebrate beastly breed (e.g. water fleas, aphids, nematodes, some bees, some Phasmida, some scorpion species, and parasitic wasps) and some vertebrates (e.g. some reptiles,2 fish, and actual rarely birds3 and sharks4). This blazon of reproduction has been induced artificially in added species.

The appellation is sometimes acclimated inaccurately to call reproduction modes in hermaphroditic breed which can carbon by themselves because they accommodate changeable organs of both sexes.

Contents

Occurrence and types

Parthenogenesis is apparent to action by itself in aphids, Daphnia, rotifers, nematodes and some added invertebrates, as able-bodied as in abounding plants. Komodo dragons and the hammerhead- and blacktip sharks accept afresh been added to the annual of vertebrates—along with several genera of fish, amphibians, and reptiles—that display differing forms of asexual reproduction, including accurate parthenogenesis, gynogenesis, and hybridogenesis (an abridged anatomy of parthenogenesis). As with all types of asexual reproduction, there are both costs (low abiogenetic assortment and accordingly susceptibility to adverse mutations that ability occur) and allowances (reproduction afterwards the charge for a male) associated with parthenogenesis.

The baby of parthenogenesis will be all changeable if two like chromosomes actuate the changeable sex (such as the XY sex-determination system), but they will be macho if two like chromosomes actuate the macho sex (such as the ZW sex-determination system), because the action involves the bequest and consecutive duplication of abandoned a abandoned sex chromosome. The baby may be able of beastly reproduction, if this approach exists in the species. In abounding cases, parthenogenesis occurs if one gender (typically the male) is bare in the accepted vicinity. Once males are afresh available, the parthenogenesis-created females would be able of alliance with the males and creating accustomed offspring.5

Parthenogenesis is audible from bogus animal cloning, a action area the new beastly is necessarily genetically identical to the corpuscle donor. In cloning, the nucleus of a diploid corpuscle from a donor beastly is amid into an enucleated egg corpuscle and the corpuscle is again angry to abide connected mitosis, consistent in an beastly that is genetically identical to the donor. Parthenogenesis is different, in that it originates from the abiogenetic actual absolute aural an egg cell. Egg beef may be produced via meiosis or mitosis oogenesis.6 If by mitosis, the egg that undergoes parthenogenesis can be either haploid or diploid, arch to a amount of accessible outcomes in agreement of the abiogenetic fingerprint of the parthenogen. A diploid ancestor beastly that undergoes parthenogenesis via meiosis will actualize haploid baby with a new abiogenetic fingerprint due to crossing over of the chromosomes in the parent. Because there are so abounding variables in parthenogenesis, there is little that can be said for abiding unless the specific methods of the accurate parthenogenetic tendencies of an beastly are known.

A clutter of baby consistent from parthenogenesis may accommodate genetically identical siblings. In bacilli possessing an XY chromosome system, parthenogenic baby are consistently female, but they are not necessarily genetically identical to one accession or to their mother (some chromosome segments may alter because of meiosis).

Parthenogenesis may be accomplished through an bogus action as declared beneath beneath the altercation of mammals.

Alternation amid parthenogenesis and sexual reproduction is alleged heterogamy. A anatomy of reproduction accompanying to parthenogenesis, but that abandoned requires the attendance of agent that do not beget an egg, is accepted as gynogenesis. In hybridogenesis the agent fertilizes the egg, but its chromosomes are not agitated to consecutive generations.

Insects

Parthenogenesis in insects can awning a advanced ambit of mechanisms.7

The altered forms include:

  1. Thelytoky - parthenogenesis in which abandoned changeable baby are produced and no alliance is observed
  2. Pseudogamy (or gynogenesis or sperm-dependent parthenogenesis) - actuality alliance occurs and the eggs crave activation by access of agent but abandoned the affectionate chromosomes are expressed
  3. Automixis - parthenogenesis in which the eggs underwent meiosis
  4. Apomixis - parthenogenesis in which the eggs did not abide meiosis

Polyembryony is accession action that produces assorted clonal baby from a abandoned egg. This is accepted in some hymenopteran parasitoids and in Strepsiptera.7

In automictic breed the baby can be haploid or diploid. Diploids are produced by acceleration or admixture of gametes afterwards meiosis. Admixture is apparent in the Phasmatodea, Hemiptera (Aleurodids and Coccidae), Diptera, and some Hymenoptera.7

In accession to these forms is hermaphroditism, area both the eggs and agent are produced by the aforementioned individual, but is not a blazon of parthenogenesis. This is apparent in three breed of Icerya calibration insects.7

Parasitic bacilli like Wolbachia accept been acclaimed to abet automictic thelytoky in abounding insect breed with haplodiploid systems. They aswell could could could could could could cause gamete duplication in unfertilized eggs causing them to advance into changeable offspring.7

Honey Bee on a asset blossom

An archetype of non-viable parthenogenesis is accepted a allotment of calm honey bees. The queen bee is the abandoned abundant changeable in the hive; if she dies afterwards the achievability for a applicable backup queen, it is not aberrant for the artisan bees to lay eggs. Artisan bees are clumsy to mate, and the unfertilized eggs aftermath abandoned drones (males), which can abandoned acquaintance with a queen. Thus, in a almost abbreviate period, all the artisan bees die off, and the new drones follow.

In one subspecies from South Africa, Apis mellifera capensis, workers are able of bearing diploid eggs parthenogenetically, and appropriately the queen can be replaced if she dies.

It is believed that a few added bees may be absolutely parthenogenetic, for example, at atomic one breed of baby carpenter bee, in the brand Ceratina. Abounding parasitic wasps are accepted to be parthenogenetic, sometimes due to infections by Wolbachia.

In Cataglyphis cursor, a European formicine ant, the queen can carbon by parthenogenesis. The workers are abundant and can acquaintance with the males in the colony.8

In Central and South American electric all-overs (aka little blaze ants), Wasmannia auropunctata, queens aftermath added queens through parthenogenesis. Sterile workers usually are produced from eggs fertilized by males. In some of the eggs fertilized by males, however, the fertilization can could could could could could could cause the changeable abiogenetic actual to be ablated from the zygote, in a action alleged ameiotic parthenogenesis. In this way, males canyon on abandoned their genes to become abundant macho offspring. This is the aboriginal accustomed archetype of an beastly breed area both females and males can carbon clonally consistent in a complete break of macho and changeable gene pools.9

Crustaceans

Crustacean reproduction varies both beyond and aural species. The water flea Daphnia pulex alternates amid beastly and parthenogenetic reproduction.10 A allotment of the better-known ample decapod crustaceans, some crayfish carbon by parthenogensis. "Marmorkrebs" are parthenogenetic crayfish that were apparent in the pet trade in the 1990s.11 Baby are genetically identical to the parent, advertence it reproduces by apomixis, i.e. parthenogenesis in which the eggs did not abide meiosis.12 The Louisiana red swamp crayfish (Procambarus clarkii), which commonly reproduces sexually, has aswell been appropriate to carbon by parthenogenesis.13

Snails and flatworms

Parthenogenetic Thiarid snails accept attenuate cone shaped shellscitation needed. They reside in addled beck cheers and augment on bits and algae.

At atomic two breed in the brand Dugesia, flatworms in the Turbellaria sub-division of the phylum Platyhelminthes, cover polyploid individuals that carbon by parthenogenesis.14 Parthenogenesis requires mating, but the sperm does not accord to the analysis of the baby (parthenogenesis is pseudogamous). A circuitous aeon of matings amid diploid beastly and polyploid parthenogenetic individuals produces new parthenogenetic lines.

Reptiles

Komodo Dragon, Varanus komodoensis, is accepted to be able to carbon by itself by parthenogenesis

Most reptiles carbon sexually, but parthenogenesis has been empiric to action by itself in assertive breed of whiptails, geckos, rock lizards,2 blindsnakes and Komodo dragons.

Parthenogenesis has been advised abundantly in the New Mexico whiptail (genus Cnemidophorus), of which 15 breed carbon abandoned by parthenogenesis. These lizards reside in the dry and sometimes acrid altitude of the southwestern United States and arctic Mexico. All these asexual breed arise to accept arisen through the admixture of two or three of the beastly breed in the brand arch to polyploid individuals. The apparatus by which the bond of chromosomes from two or three breed can advance to parthenogenetic reproduction is unknown. Because assorted admixture contest can occur, abandoned parthenogenetic whiptail breed can abide of assorted absolute asexual lineages. Aural lineages, there is actual little abiogenetic diversity, but altered lineages may accept absolutely altered genotypes.

An absorbing aspect to reproduction in these asexual lizards is that alliance behaviors are still seen, although the populations are all female. One changeable plays the role played by the macho in carefully accompanying species, and mounts the changeable that is about to lay eggs. This behaviour is due to the hormonal cycles of the females, which could could could could could could cause them to behave like males anon afterwards laying eggs, if levels of progesterone are high, and to yield the changeable role in alliance afore laying eggs, if estrogen dominates. Lizards who act out the courting ritual accept greater fecundity than those kept in isolation, due to the access in hormones that accompanies the mounting. So, although the populations abridgement males, they still crave beastly behavioral stimuli for maximum changeable success.15

Recently, the Komodo dragon, which commonly reproduces sexually, was activate aswell to be able to carbon asexually by parthenogenesis.1617 Because the analysis of sex assurance in Komodo Dragons uses the ZW system (where ZW is female, ZZ is male, and WW is inviable) the baby of this action will be ZZ (male) or WW (inviable), with no ZW females getting born. A case has been accurate of a Komodo Dragon switching aback to beastly reproduction afterwards a accepted parthenogenetic event.18 It has been accepted that this gives an advantage to colonization of islands, area a abandoned changeable could allegedly accept macho baby asexually, again about-face to beastly reproduction with them to advance a college akin of abiogenetic assortment than asexual reproduction abandoned can generate.18

Parthenogenesis may aswell action by itself if males and females are both present, which ability explain why the agrarian Komodo dragon citizenry is about 75 percent male.

Sharks

A bonnethead, a blazon of baby hammerhead shark, was activate to accept produced a pup, built-in reside on 14 December 2001 at Henry Doorly Zoo in Nebraska, in a catchbasin absolute three changeable hammerheads, but no males. The pup was anticipation to accept been conceived through parthenogenic means. The bluff pup was allegedly dead by a stingray aural canicule of birth.19 The analysis of the bearing was conducted by the analysis aggregation from Queen's University Belfast, Southeastern University in Florida, and Henry Doorly Zoo itself, and it was assured afterwards DNA testing that the reproduction was parthenogenic. The testing showed the changeable pup's DNA akin abandoned one changeable who lived in the tank, and that no macho DNA was present in the pup. The pup was not a accompanying or carbon of her mother, but rather, absolute abandoned bisected of her mother's DNA ("automictic parthenogenesis"). This blazon of reproduction had been apparent afore in awkward fish, but never in cartilaginous angle such as sharks, until this documentation.

In 2002, two white-spotted bamboo sharks were built-in at the Belle Isle Aquarium in Detroit. They hatched 15 weeks afterwards getting laid. The births baffled experts as the mother aggregate an aquarium with abandoned one added shark, which was female. The changeable bamboo sharks had laid eggs in the past. This is not unexpected, as abounding animals will lay eggs even if there is not a macho to beget them. Normally, the eggs are affected to be inviable and are discarded. This accumulation of eggs was larboard undisturbed by the babysitter as he had heard about the antecedent bearing in 2001 in Nebraska and capital to beam whether they would hatch.

Other possibilities had been advised for the bearing of the Detroit bamboo sharks including thoughts that the sharks had been fertilized by a macho and stored the agent for a aeon of time, as able-bodied as the achievability that the Belle Isle bamboo bluff is a hermaphrodite, harboring both macho and changeable sex organs, and able of agriculture its own eggs, but that is not confirmed.

In 2008, a Hungarian aquarium had accession case of parthenogenesis afterwards its abandoned changeable bluff produced a pup afterwards anytime accepting arise into acquaintance with a macho shark. In the aforementioned year, a changeable Atlantic blacktip shark in Virginia reproduced via parthenogenesis.20

On Friday, Oct. 10, 2008, Scientists accepted the additional case of a abstinent bearing in a shark. The Account of Angle Analysis arise a abstraction in which scientists said DNA testing accepted that a pup agitated by a changeable Atlantic blacktip bluff in the Virginia Aquarium & Marine Science Centermost absolute no abiogenetic actual from a male.

The repercussions of parthenogenesis in sharks, which fails to access the abiogenetic assortment of the offspring, is a amount of affair for bluff experts, demography into application attention administration strategies for this species, decidedly in areas area there may be a curtailment of males due to fishing or anatomy pressures. Although parthenogenesis may advice females who cannot acquisition mates, it does abate abiogenetic diversity.

Sharks accept an XY sex-determination system, so they aftermath abandoned changeable (XX) baby by parthenogenesis. As a result, sharks cannot restore a depleted macho citizenry through parthenogenesis, so an all-female citizenry accept to arise in acquaintance with an alfresco macho afore beastly reproduction consistent in males can occur. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27

Birds

Wiki letter w.svg This area requires expansion.

There were aboriginal claims of parthenogenesis in birds but this can be attributed to non-scientific acumen and motivation. According to one Giraldus Cambrensis, or Gerald of Wales, who forth with Irish analogue Conor O'Cathfai, wrote an annual of the history and cartography of Ireland afterward several visits in the closing allotment of the 12th century, the Barnacle goose reproduces afterwards mating. Upon afterpiece assay one realises that this allocation agency the bishops and religious men of Ireland may eat it afterwards sin during periods of fasting. Since it is not the breed of flesh, it cannot be advised beef itself. This again was the acumen for the allocation and has no base in fact.

More recently:

According to Kathrin P. Lampert of the University of Bochum "...isolated cases of parthenogenetic development accept been arise in all bearcat groups. Arbitrary parthenogenesis28 in vertebrates has abandoned been activate in bound animals but ability artlessly accept been disregarded in accustomed populations. Even admitting its evolutionary appulse is harder to actuate and actual acceptable varies depending on the ploidy apology mechanisms and sex-determining mechanisms involved, arbitrary parthenogenesis is already discussed in attention analysis and medical research." 29

Parthenogenesis occurs in turkeys through acceleration of haploid cells, and the amount at which this occurs could be added by careful breeding.30 The baby produced by parthenogenesis were healthy, and as angled haploids they were homogametic, and appropriately all were male.

Mammals

There are no accepted cases of by itself occurring beastly parthenogenesis in the wild. However, in 1936 Gregory Goodwin Pincus arise auspiciously inducing parthenogenesis in a rabbit.31

In April 2004, scientists at Tokyo University of Agriculture acclimated parthenogenesis auspiciously to actualize a adulterated mouse. Application gene targeting, they were able to dispense two imprinted loci H19/IGF2 and DLK1/MEG3 to aftermath bi-maternal mice at top frequency32 and afterwards appearance that adulterated mice accept added longevity.33

It is awful ambiguous that bogus animal parthenogenesis would be acclimated to carbon bodies due to technical concerns. Use of an electrical or actinic bang can aftermath the alpha of the action of parthenogenesis in the asexual development of applicable offspring.citation needed

Induced parthenogenesis in mice and monkeys generally after-effects in aberrant development. This is because mammals accept imprinted abiogenetic regions, area either the affectionate or benevolent chromosome is inactivated in the baby in adjustment for development to advance normally. A mammal created by parthenogenesis would appropriately accept bifold doses of maternally imprinted genes and abridgement paternally imprinted genes, arch to adorning abnormalities. It has been suggested34 that defects in placental folding or interdigitation are one could could could could could could cause of barbarian parthenote bootless development. As a consequence, analysis on animal parthenogenesis is focused on the assembly of embryonic axis cells for use in medical treatment, not as a changeable strategy.

On June 26, 2007, International Axis Corpuscle Corporation (ISCC), a California-based axis corpuscle analysis company, arise that their advance scientist, Dr. Elena Revazova, and her analysis aggregation were the aboriginal to carefully actualize animal axis beef from unfertilized animal eggs application parthenogenesis.35 The action may action a way for creating axis beef that are genetically akin to a accurate woman for the analysis of degenerative diseases which ability affect her.

On August 2, 2007, afterwards abundant absolute investigation, it was arise that discredited South Korean scientist Hwang Woo-Suk aback produced the aboriginal animal embryos consistent from parthenogenesis. Initially, Hwang claimed he and his aggregation had extracted axis beef from cloned animal embryos, a aftereffect afterwards activate to be fabricated. Further assay of the chromosomes of these beef appearance indicators of parthenogenesis in those extracted axis cells, agnate to those activate in the mice created by Tokyo scientists in 2004. Although Hwang bamboozled the apple about getting the aboriginal to actualize artificially cloned animal embryos, he did accord a above advance to axis corpuscle analysis by creating animal embryos application parthenogenesis.36

Although the accuracy about the after-effects of Hwang's plan was just discoveredcitation needed, those embryos were created by him and his aggregation afore February 2004, authoritative Hwang the first, unknowingly, to accomplish the action of parthenogenesis to actualize a animal antecedent and ultimately a animal parthenogenetic axis corpuscle band successfully. In 2006, a accumulation of Italian advisers arise the aforementioned feat, but accept yet to broadcast their results.

On December 18, 2007 Dr. Revazova and ISCC arise an online commodity in the account Cloning and Axis Cells illustrating a advance in the use of parthenogenesis to aftermath animal axis beef that are homozygous in the HLA arena of DNA. These axis beef are alleged HLA homozygous parthenogenetic animal axis beef (hpSC-Hhom) and accept altered characteristics that would acquiesce derivatives of these beef to be built-in into millions of humans afterwards allowed rejection.37 With able alternative of oocyte donors according to HLA haplotype, it is accessible to accomplish a coffer of corpuscle curve whose tissue derivatives, collectively, could be MHC-matched with a cogent amount of individuals aural the animal population.

Oomycetes

Apomixis can allegedly action in Phytophthora,38 an Oomycete. Oospores acquired afterwards an beginning cantankerous were germinated, and some of the breed were genetically identical to one or added parent, which would betoken that meiosis did not action and the oospores developed by parthenogenesis.

Similar phenomena

Gynogenesis

A anatomy of asexual reproduction accompanying to parthenogenesis is gynogenesis. Actuality baby are produced by the aforementioned apparatus as in parthenogenesis, but with the claim that the egg alone be angry by the presence of sperm in adjustment to develop. However, the agent corpuscle does not accord any abiogenetic actual to the offspring. Since gynogenetic breed are all female, activation of their eggs requires alliance with males of a carefully accompanying breed for the bare stimulus. Some salamanders of the brand Ambystoma are gynogenetic and arise to accept been so for over a actor years. It is believedwho? that the success of those salamanders may be due to attenuate fertilization of eggs by males, introducing new actual to the gene pool, which may aftereffect from conceivably abandoned one alliance out of a million.

Hybridogenesis

In hybridogenesis, reproduction is not absolutely asexual, but instead hemiclonal: bisected the genome is anesthetized complete to the next generation, while the added bisected is discarded. It occurs in some animals that are themselves hybrids amid two altered species.

Hybridogenetic females can acquaintance with males of a "donor" breed and both will accord abiogenetic actual to the offspring. If anniversary changeable baby produces her own eggs, however, the eggs will accommodate no abiogenetic actual from her ancestor (the donor), abandoned the chromosomes from her own mother; the set of genes from the ancestor is consistently discarded. This action continues, so that anniversary bearing is bisected (or hemi-) clonal on the mother's ancillary and has bisected new abiogenetic actual from the father's side. This anatomy of reproduction is apparent in some live-bearing angle of the brand Poeciliopsis39 as able-bodied as in the waterfrog Rana esculenta.

A graphical representation of this can be apparent through this link.

Automixis

Automixis is a appellation that covers several changeable mechanisms, some of which are parthenogenetic.40

Automixis is authentic as reproduction involving the alliance of two articles (from the four accessible products) of the aforementioned meiosis. If this alliance occurs afore these meiotic articles accept accomplished into gametes, again the action is advised to be parthenogenesis.40 In automictic parthenogenesis the abandoned baby alter from one accession and from their mother.

Sometimes the meiotic articles that amalgamate are exact copies, which is sometimes declared as "half a clone".41 The baby still is altered and not a carbon of its mother.

See also

People

References

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  2. ^ a b Halliday, Tim R.; Kraig Adler (eds.) (1986). Reptiles & Amphibians. Torstar Books. p. 101. ISBN 0-920269-81-8. 
  3. ^ Savage, Thomas F. (September 12, 2005). "A Guide to the Recognition of Parthenogenesis in Incubated Turkey Eggs". Oregon State University. http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/ans-tparth/index.html. Retrieved 2006–10–11. 
  4. ^ "Female Sharks Can Carbon Alone, Advisers Find", Washington Post, Wednesday, May 23, 2007; Page A02
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