Medicine


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Medicine

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Statue of Asclepius, the Greek God of medicine, captivation the allegorical Rod of Asclepius with its coiled serpent

Medicine is the science and art (ars medicina) of healing humans. It includes a array of health care practices acquired to advance and restore health by the prevention and treatment of illness. Afore authentic medicine, healing arts were accomplished forth with alchemical and ritual practices that developed out of religious and cultural traditions. The appellation "Western medicine" was until afresh acclimated to accredit to authentic and science-based practices to analyze it from "Eastern medicine" — which are about based in traditional, story-told, or contrarily non-scientific practices.

Contemporary anesthetic applies health science, biomedical research, and medical technology to diagnose and amusement injury and disease, about through medication, surgery, or some added assay of therapy. The chat medicine is acquired from the Latin ars medicina, acceptation the art of healing.12

Though medical technology and analytic adeptness are cardinal to abreast medicine, acknowledged contiguous abatement of absolute suffering continues to crave the appliance of accustomed beastly feeling and compassion, accepted in English as bedside manner.3

Contents

History

The age-old Sumerian god Ningishzida, the angel of medicine, accompanied by two gryphons

Prehistoric medicine congenital plants (herbalism), beastly locations and minerals. In abounding cases these abstracts were acclimated ritually as bewitched substances by priests, shamans, or medicine men. Well-known airy systems cover animism (the angle of azoic altar accepting spirits), spiritualism (an abode to gods or accord with antecedent spirits); shamanism (the vesting of an alone with abstruse powers); and divination (magically accepting the truth). The acreage of medical anthropology examines the agency in which adeptness and association are organized about or impacted by issues of health, bloom affliction and accompanying issues.

Statuette of age-old Egyptian physician Imhotep, the aboriginal physician from antique accepted by name.

Early annal on anesthetic accept been apparent from ancient Egyptian medicine, Babylonian medicine, Ayurvedic anesthetic (in the Indian subcontinent), classical Chinese medicine (predecessor to the avant-garde traditional Chinese Medicine), and ancient Greek medicine and Roman medicine. The Egyptian Imhotep (3rd millennium BC) is the aboriginal physician in history accepted by name. Age-old annal of committed hospitals appear from Mihintale in Sri Lanka breadth affirmation of committed alleviative assay accessories for patients are found.45 The Indian surgeon Sushruta declared abundant surgical operations, including the age-old forms of plastic surgery.6dubious 7

The Greek physician Hippocrates (ca. 460 BCE – ca. 370 BCE), brash the ancestor of Western medicine.89

The Greek physician Hippocrates, brash the "father of medicine",910 laid the foundation for a rational admission to medicine. Hippocrates alien the Hippocratic Oath for physicians, which is still accordant and in use today, and was the aboriginal to assort illnesses as acute, chronic, endemic and epidemic, and use agreement such as, "exacerbation, relapse, resolution, crisis, paroxysm, peak, and convalescence".1112 The Greek physician Galen was aswell one of the greatest surgeons of the age-old apple and performed abounding adventurous operations, including academician and eye surgeries. Afterwards the abatement of the Western Roman Empire and the admission of the Dark Ages, the Greek attitude of anesthetic went into abatement in Western Europe, although it connected ceaseless in the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire.

A Latin archetype of The Canon of Medicine, accounting by Avicenna, who is aswell brash the ancestor of medicine.

After 750 CE, the Muslim Arab apple had the works of Hippocrates, Galen and Sushruta translated into Arabic, and Islamic physicians affianced in some cogent medical research. Notable Islamic medical antecedents cover the polymath, Avicenna, who, forth with Imhotep and Hippocrates, has aswell been alleged the "father of medicine".1314 He wrote The Canon of Medicine, brash one of the a lot of acclaimed books in the history of medicine.15 Others cover Abulcasis,16 Avenzoar,17 Ibn al-Nafis,18 and Averroes.19 Rhazes 20 was one of aboriginal to catechism the Greek admission of humorism, which about remained affecting in both medieval Western and medieval Islamic medicine.21 The Islamic Bimaristan hospitals were an aboriginal archetype of public hospitals.2223 However, the fourteenth and fifteenth aeon Black Death was just as adverse to the Middle East as to Europe, and it has even been argued that Western Europe was about added able in convalescent from the communicable than the Middle East.24 In the aboriginal avant-garde period, important aboriginal abstracts in anesthetic and assay emerged in Europe, including Gabriele Falloppio and William Harvey.

An age-old Greek accommodating gets medical treatment: this aryballos (circa 480-470 BCE, now in Paris's Louvre Museum) apparently independent healing oil

The aloft about-face in medical cerebration was the bit-by-bit rejection, abnormally during the Black Death in the 14th and 15th centuries, of what may be alleged the 'traditional authority' admission to science and medicine. This was the angle that because some arresting being in the accomplished said something accept to be so, again that was the way it was, and annihilation one empiric to the adverse was an aberration (which was paralleled by a agnate about-face in European association in accepted - see Copernicus's bounce of Ptolemy's theories on astronomy). Physicians like Ibn al-Nafis and Vesalius bigger aloft or disproved some of the theories from the past.

Modern authentic biomedical research (where after-effects are testable and reproducible) began to alter aboriginal Western traditions based on herbalism, the Greek "four humours" and added such pre-modern notions. The avant-garde era absolutely began with Edward Jenner's assay of the smallpox vaccine at the end of the 18th aeon (inspired by the adjustment of inoculation beforehand accomplished in Asia), Robert Koch's discoveries about 1880 of the manual of ache by bacteria, and again the assay of antibiotics about 1900. The post-18th aeon modernity aeon brought added groundbreaking advisers from Europe. From Germany and Austrian doctors (such as Rudolf Virchow, Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, Karl Landsteiner, and Otto Loewi) fabricated contributions. In the United Kingdom Alexander Fleming, Joseph Lister, Francis Crick, and Florence Nightingale are brash important. From New Zealand and Australia came Maurice Wilkins, Howard Florey, and Frank Macfarlane Burnet). In the United States William Williams Keen, Harvey Cushing, William Coley, James D. Watson, Italy (Salvador Luria), Switzerland (Alexandre Yersin), Japan (Kitasato Shibasaburo), and France (Jean-Martin Charcot, Claude Bernard, Paul Broca and others did cogent work). Russian Nikolai Korotkov aswell did cogent work, as did Sir William Osler and Harvey Cushing.

As science and technology developed, anesthetic became added codicillary aloft medications. Throughout history and in Europe appropriate until the backward 18th aeon not alone beastly and bulb online writing were acclimated as medicine, but aswell beastly physique locations and fluids.25 Pharmacology developed from herbalism and abounding drugs are still acquired from plants (atropine, ephedrine, warfarin, aspirin, digoxin, vinca alkaloids, taxol, hyoscine, etc.). The aboriginal of these was arsphenamine / Salvarsan apparent by Paul Ehrlich in 1908 afterwards he empiric that bacilli took up baneful dyes that beastly beef did not. Vaccines were apparent by Edward Jenner and Louis Pasteur. The aboriginal aloft chic of antibiotics was the sulfa drugs, acquired by French chemists originally from azo dyes. This has become added sophisticated; avant-garde biotechnology allows drugs targeted appear specific physiological processes to be developed, sometimes brash for affinity with the physique to abate side-effects. Genomics and adeptness of human genetics is accepting some admission on medicine, as the adroit genes of a lot of monogenic genetic disorders accept now been identified, and the development of techniques in molecular biology and assay are influencing medical technology, convenance and decision-making.

Evidence-based medicine is a abreast movement to authorize the a lot of able algorithms of convenance (ways of accomplishing things) through the use of systematic reviews and meta-analysis. The movement is facilitated by avant-garde all-around information science, which allows as abundant of the accessible affirmation as accessible to be calm and analyzed according to accepted protocols which are again broadcast to healthcare providers. One botheration with this 'best practice' admission is that it could be apparent to asphyxiate atypical approaches to treatmentcitation needed. The Cochrane Collaboration leads this movement. A 2001 assay of 160 Cochrane analytical reviews appear that, according to two readers, 21.3% of the reviews assured bereft evidence, 20% assured affirmation of no effect, and 22.5% assured absolute effect.26

Clinical practice

The Doctor, by Sir Luke Fildes (1891)

In analytic convenance doctors alone appraise patients in adjustment to diagnose, treat, and anticipate ache appliance analytic judgment. The doctor-patient relationship about begins an alternation with an assay of the patient's medical history and medical record, followed a medical interview27 and a physical examination. Basal analytic medical devices (e.g. stethoscope, tongue depressor) are about used. Afterwards assay for signs and interviewing for symptoms, the doctor may adjustment medical tests (e.g. blood tests), yield a biopsy, or appoint pharmaceutical drugs or added therapies. Differential diagnosis methods admonition to aphorism out altitude based on the admonition provided. During the encounter, appropriately allegorical the accommodating of all accordant facts is an important allotment of the accord and the development of trust. The medical appointment is again accurate in the medical record, which is a acknowledged certificate in abounding jurisdictions.28 Followups may be beneath but chase the aforementioned accepted procedure.

The apparatus of the medical interview27 and appointment are:

The physical examination is the assay of the accommodating searching for signs of ache ('Symptoms' are what the accommodating volunteers, 'Signs' are what the healthcare provider detects by examination). The healthcare provider uses the senses of sight, hearing, touch, and sometimes that appears to smell (e.g. in infection, uremia, diabetic ketoacidosis). Taste has been fabricated bombastic by the availability of avant-garde lab tests. Four accomplishments are accomplished as the abject of concrete examination: inspection, palpation (feel), percussion (tap to actuate resonance characteristics), and auscultation (listen). This adjustment may be adapted depending on the capital focus of the assay (e.g. a collective may be brash by artlessly "look, feel, move". Accepting this set adjustment is an educational apparatus that encourages the practitioner to be analytical in their admission and burden from appliance accoutrement such as the stethoscope afore they accept absolutely evaluated the added modalities.

The analytic assay involves abstraction of:

It is acceptable to be focussed on areas of absorption accent in the medical history and may not cover aggregate listed above.

Laboratory and imaging studies after-effects may be obtained, if necessary.

The medical controlling (MDM) action involves assay and amalgam of all the aloft abstracts to appear up with a account of accessible diagnoses (the differential diagnoses), forth with an abstraction of what needs to be done to admission a absolute assay that would explain the patient's problem.

The assay plan may cover acclimation added class tests and studies, starting therapy, barometer to a specialist, or alert observation. Follow-up may be advised.

This action is acclimated by primary affliction providers as able-bodied as specialists. It may yield alone a few account if the botheration is simple and straightforward. On the added hand, it may yield weeks in a accommodating who has been ailing with camp affection or multi-system problems, with captivation by several specialists.

On consecutive visits, the action may be again in an abbreviated abode to admission any new history, symptoms, concrete findings, and lab or imaging after-effects or specialist consultations.

Institutions

Contemporary anesthetic is in accepted conducted aural health affliction systems. Legal, credentialing and costs frameworks are accustomed by alone governments, aggrandized on break by all-embracing organizations. The characteristics of any accustomed bloom affliction arrangement accept cogent appulse on the way medical affliction is provided.

Advanced automated countries (with the barring of the United States) 2930 and abounding developing countries accommodate medical casework through a arrangement of universal bloom care which aims to agreement affliction for all through a single-payer bloom care system, or compulsatory clandestine or annex health insurance. This is advised to ensure that the absolute citizenry has admission to medical affliction on the abject of charge rather than adeptness to pay. Supply may be via clandestine medical practices or by state-owned hospitals and clinics, or by charities; a lot of frequently by a aggregate of all three.

Most tribal societies, but aswell some antipathetic countries (e.g. China) and the United States,2930 accommodate no agreement of bloom affliction for the citizenry as a whole. In such societies, bloom affliction is accessible to those that can allow to pay for it or accept cocky insured it (either anon or as allotment of an appliance contract) or who may be covered by affliction financed by the government or association directly.

Modern biologic ampoules

Transparency of admonition is accession agency defining a supply system. Admission to admonition on conditions, treatments, above and appraisement abundantly affects the best by patients / consumers and accordingly the incentives of medical professionals. While the US bloom affliction arrangement has appear beneath blaze for abridgement of openness,31 new legislation may animate greater openness. There is a perceived astriction amid the charge for accuracy on the one duke and such issues as accommodating acquaintance and the accessible corruption of admonition for bartering accretion on the other.

Delivery

Provision of medical affliction is classified into primary, accessory and tertiary affliction categories.

Primary care medical casework are provided by physicians, physician assistants, nurse practitioners, or added bloom professionals who accept aboriginal acquaintance with a accommodating gluttonous medical assay or care. These action in physician offices, clinics, nursing homes, schools, home visits and added places abutting to patients. About 90% of medical visits can be advised by the primary affliction provider. These cover assay of astute and abiding illnesses, preventive care and health education for all ages and both sexes.

Secondary care medical casework are provided by medical specialists in their offices or clinics or at bounded association hospitals for a accommodating referred by a primary affliction provider who aboriginal diagnosed or advised the patient. Referrals are fabricated for those patients who appropriate the adeptness or procedures performed by specialists. These cover both ambulatory care and inpatient services, emergency rooms, intensive affliction medicine, surgery services, physical therapy, labor and delivery, endoscopy units, analytic laboratory and medical imaging services, hospice centers, etc. Some primary affliction providers may aswell yield affliction of ailing patients and bear babies in a accessory affliction setting.

Tertiary care medical casework are provided by specialist hospitals or bounded centers able with analytic and assay accessories not about accessible at bounded hospitals. These cover trauma centers, burn assay centers, avant-garde neonatology assemblage services, organ transplants, high-risk pregnancy, radiation oncology, etc.

Modern medical affliction aswell depends on admonition - still delivered in abounding bloom affliction settings on cardboard records, but added nowadays by cyberbanking means.

Branches

Working calm as an interdisciplinary team, abounding awful accomplished health professionals besides medical practitioners are circuitous in the supply of avant-garde bloom care. Examples include: nurses, emergency medical technicians and paramedics, class scientists, pharmacists, physiotherapists, respiratory therapists, speech therapists, occupational therapists, radiographers, dietitians and bioengineers.

The ambit and sciences basement beastly anesthetic overlap abounding added fields. Dentistry, while a abstracted conduct from medicine, is brash a medical field.

A accommodating accepted to hospital is usually beneath the affliction of a specific aggregation based on their capital presenting problem, e.g. the Cardiology team, who again may collaborate with added specialties, e.g. surgical, radiology, to admonition analyze or amusement the capital botheration or any consecutive complications / developments.

Physicians accept abounding specializations and subspecializations into assertive branches of medicine, which are listed below. There are variations from country to country apropos which specialties assertive subspecialties are in.

The capital branches of anesthetic acclimated in Wikipedia are:

Basic sciences

Specialties

In the broadest acceptation of "medicine", there are abounding altered specialties. In the UK a lot of specialities will accept their own physique or academy (collectively accepted as the Royal Colleges, although currently not all use the appellation "Royal") which accept their own access exam. The development of a aspect is about apprenticed by new technology (such as the development of able anaesthetics) or agency of alive (e.g. emergency departments) which leads to the admiration to assay a accumulation physique of doctors and accordingly the ascendancy of administering their own exam.

Within medical circles, specialities usually fit into one of two ample categories: "Medicine" and "Surgery." "Medicine" refers to the convenance of non-operative medicine, and a lot of subspecialties in this breadth crave basal training in "Internal Medicine". In the UK this would frequently accept been apparent by accepting the MRCP (An assay acceptance Associates of the Royal Academy of Physicians or the agnate academy in Scotland or Ireland). "Surgery" refers to the convenance of accessible medicine, and a lot of subspecialties in this breadth crave basal training in "General Surgery." (In the UK: Associates of the Royal Academy of Surgeons of England (MRCS).)There are some specialties of anesthetic that at the present time do not fit calmly into either of these categories, such as radiology, pathology, or anesthesia. A lot of of these accept angled from one or added of the two camps aloft - for archetype amazement developed aboriginal as a faculty of the Royal Academy of Surgeons (for which MRCS/FRCS would accept been required) afore acceptable the Royal Academy of Anaesthetists and associates of the academy is by sitting the FRCA (Fellowship of the Royal Academy of Anesthetists).

Surgery

Surgical specialties administer accessible treatment. In addition, surgeons accept to adjudge if an operation is necessary, and aswell amusement abounding non-surgical issues, decidedly in the surgical accelerated affliction assemblage (SICU), breadth a array of analytical issues arise. Anaplasty has abounding subspecialties, e.g. general surgery, cardiovascular surgery, colorectal surgery, neurosurgery, maxillofacial surgery, orthopedic surgery, otolaryngology, plastic surgery, oncologic surgery, transplant surgery, trauma surgery, urology, vascular surgery, and pediatric surgery. In some centers, anesthesiology is allotment of the assay of anaplasty (for actual and logistical reasons), although it is not a surgical discipline.

Surgical training in the U.S. requires a minimum of 5 years of abode afterwards medical school. Sub-specialties of anaplasty about crave seven or added years. In addition, fellowships can endure an added one to three years. Because post-residency fellowships can be competitive, abounding trainees allot two added years to research. Thus in some cases surgical training will not accomplishment until added than a decade afterwards medical school. Furthermore, surgical training can be actual difficult and time consuming.

'Medicine' as a specialty

Internal medicine is the medical specialty anxious with the diagnosis, administration and nonsurgical assay of abnormal or austere diseases, either of one accurate agency arrangement or of the physique as a whole. According to some sources, an accent on centralized structures is implied.32 In North America, specialists in centralized anesthetic are frequently alleged "internists". Elsewhere, abnormally in Commonwealth nations, such specialists are about alleged physicians.33 These terms, internist or physician (in the attenuated sense, accepted alfresco North America), about exclude practitioners of gynecology and obstetrics, pathology, psychiatry, and abnormally anaplasty and its subspecialities.

Because their patients are about actively ill or crave circuitous investigations, internists do abundant of their plan in hospitals. Formerly, abounding internists were not subspecialized; such general physicians would see any circuitous nonsurgical problem; this appearance of convenance has become abundant beneath common. In avant-garde burghal practice, a lot of internists are subspecialists: that is, they about absolute their medical convenance to problems of one agency arrangement or to one accurate breadth of medical knowledge. For example, gastroenterologists and nephrologists specialize appropriately in diseases of the gut and the kidneys.34

In Commonwealth and some added countries, specialist pediatricians and geriatricians are aswell declared as specialist physicians (or internists) who accept subspecialized by age of accommodating rather than by agency system. Elsewhere, abnormally in North America, accepted pediatrics is about a assay of Primary care.

There are abounding subspecialities (or subdisciplines) of internal medicine:

Training in centralized anesthetic (as adjoin to surgical training), varies appreciably beyond the world: see the online writing on Medical education and Physician for added details. In North America, it requires at atomic three years of abode training afterwards medical school, which can again be followed by a one to three year acquaintance in the subspecialties listed above. In general, citizen plan hours in anesthetic are beneath than those in surgery, averaging about 60 hours per anniversary in the USA. This aberration does not administer in the UK breadth all doctors are now appropriate by law to plan beneath than 48 hours per anniversary on average.

Diagnostic specialties

Other aloft specialties

The followings are some aloft medical specialties that do not anon fit into any of the aloft mentioned groups.

Interdisciplinary fields

Some interdisciplinary sub-specialties of anesthetic include:

Education

Painted by Toulouse-Lautrec in the year of his own death: an assay in the Paris adroitness of medicine, 1901

Medical apprenticeship and training varies about the world. It about involves access akin apprenticeship at a university medical school, followed by a aeon of supervised convenance or internship, and/or residency. This can be followed by postgraduate abstruse training. A array of teaching methods accept been alive in medical education, still itself a focus of alive research.

Many authoritative authorities crave continuing medical education, back knowledge, techniques and medical technology abide to advance at a accelerated rate.

Legal controls

In a lot of countries, it is a acknowledged affirmation for a medical doctor to be accountant or registered. In general, this entails a medical amount from a university and accreditation by a medical board or an agnate civic organization, which may ask the appellant to canyon exams. This restricts the ample acknowledged ascendancy of the medical profession to physicians that are accomplished and able by civic standards. It is aswell advised as an affirmation to patients and as a aegis adjoin charlatans that convenance bare anesthetic for claimed gain. While the laws about crave medical doctors to be accomplished in "evidence based", Western, or Hippocratic Medicine, they are not advised to abash altered paradigms of health.

Doctors who are behindhand or carefully adverse in their affliction of patients can face accuse of medical malpractice and be accountable to civil, criminal, or able sanctions.

Controversy

The Catholic amusing theorist Ivan Illich subjected abreast western anesthetic to abundant advance in his Medical Nemesis, aboriginal appear in 1975. He argued that the medicalization in contempo decades of so abounding of life's vicissitudes — birth and death, for archetype — frequently acquired added abuse than acceptable and rendered abounding humans in aftereffect constant patients. He marshalled a physique of statistics to appearance what he brash the abominable admeasurement of post-operative side-effects and drug-induced affliction in avant-garde industrial society. He was the aboriginal to acquaint to a added accessible the angle of iatrogenesis.35 Others accept back accurate agnate views, but none so trenchantly, perhaps, as Illich.36

Through the advance of the twentieth century, healthcare providers focused added on the technology that was enabling them to accomplish affecting improvements in patients' health. The after development of a added mechanistic, alone practice, with the acumen of an accessory accident of patient-focused care, accepted as the medical model of health, led to criticisms that anesthetic was apathy a holistic model.citation needed The disability of avant-garde anesthetic to appropriately abode some accepted complaints continues to alert abounding humans to seek abutment from alternative medicine. Although a lot of accession approaches abridgement authentic validation, some, conspicuously acupuncture for some altitude and assertive herbs, are backed by evidence.37

Medical errors and overmedication are aswell the focus of complaints and abrogating coverage. Practitioners of human factors engineering accept that there is abundant that anesthetic may agreeably accretion by battling concepts in aviation safety, breadth it is accustomed that it is alarming to abode too abundant albatross on one "superhuman" alone and apprehend him or her not to accomplish errors. Reporting systems and blockage mechanisms are acceptable added accepted in anecdotic sources of absurdity and convalescent practice. Analytic against statistical, algorithmic analytic methods were abundantly brash in psychiatric convenance in a 1954 book by Paul E. Meehl, which controversially begin statistical methods superior.38 A 2000 meta-analysis comparing these methods in both attitude and anesthetic begin that statistical or "mechanical" analytic methods were generally, although not always, superior.38

Disparities in above of affliction accustomed are about an added could could could cause of controversy.39 For example, aged mentally ill patients accustomed poorer affliction during analysis in a 2008 study.40 Rural poor African-American men were acclimated in a study of syphilis that denied them basal medical care.

Honors and awards

The accomplished account awarded in anesthetic is the Nobel Prize in Medicine, awarded back 1901 by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.

See also

References

  1. ^ Etymology: Latin: medicina, from ars medicina "the medical art," from medicus "physician."(Etym.Online) Cf. mederi "to heal," etym. "know the best advance for," from PIE abject *med- "to measure, limit. Cf. Greek medos "counsel, plan," Avestan vi-mad "physician")
  2. ^ "Medicine" Online Etymology Dictionary
  3. ^ Culliford Larry (December 2002). "Spirituality and analytic affliction (Editorial)". British Medical Journal 325 (7378): 1434–5. doi:10.1136/bmj.325.7378.1434. PMID 12493652. 
  4. ^ Prof. Arjuna Aluvihare, "Rohal Kramaya Lovata Dhayadha Kale Sri Lankikayo" Vidhusara Science Magazine, Nov. 1993.
  5. ^ Resource Mobilization in Sri Lanka's Bloom Sector - Rannan-Eliya, Ravi P. & De Mel, Nishan, Harvard Academy of Accessible Health & Bloom Policy Programme, Institute of Policy Studies disambiguation needed, February 1997, Page 19. Accessed 2008-02-22.
  6. ^ A. Singh and D. Sarangi (2003). "We charge to anticipate and act", Indian Journal of Plastic Surgery.
  7. ^ H. W. Longfellow (2002). "History of Plastic Anaplasty in India", Journal of Postgraduate Medicine.
  8. ^ Useful accepted and alien angle of the ancestor of avant-garde medicine, Hippocrates and his abecedary Democritus., U.S. Civic Library of Medicine
  9. ^ a b The ancestor of avant-garde medicine: the aboriginal assay of the concrete agency of tetanus, European Association of Analytic Microbiology and Infectious Diseases
  10. ^ Grammaticos P.C. & Diamantis A. (2008). "Useful accepted and alien angle of the ancestor of avant-garde medicine, Hippocrates and his abecedary Democritus". Hell J Nucl Med 11 (1): 2–4. PMID 18392218. 
  11. ^ Garrison 1966, p. 97
  12. ^ Martí-Ibáñez 1961, p. 90
  13. ^ Becka J (1980). "The ancestor of medicine, Avicenna, in our science and culture: Abu Ali ibn Sina (980-1037) (Czech title: Otec lékarů Avicenna v nasí vĕdĕ a kulture)" (in Czech). Cas Lek Cesk 119 (1): 17–23. PMID 6989499. 
  14. ^ Medical Practitioners
  15. ^ ""The Canon of Medicine" (work by Avicenna)". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. http://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-92902/The-Canon-of-Medicine. Retrieved 2008-06-11. 
  16. ^ Ahmad, Z. (St Thomas' Hospital) (2007). "Al-Zahrawi - The Ancestor of Surgery". ANZ Journal of Surgery 77 (Suppl. 1): A83. doi:10.1111/j.1445-2197.2007.04130_8.x 
  17. ^ Rabie E. Abdel-Halim (2006), "Contributions of Muhadhdhab Al-Deen Al-Baghdadi to the advance of anesthetic and urology", Saudi Medical Journal 27 (11): 1631-1641.
  18. ^ Chairman's Reflections (2004), "Traditional Anesthetic Among Gulf Arabs, Allotment II: Blood-letting", Heart Views 5 (2): 74-85 [80].
  19. ^ Martín-Araguz A, Bustamante-Martínez C, Fernández-Armayor Ajo V, Moreno-Martínez JM (2002-05-01—15). "Neuroscience in al-Andalus and its admission on medieval bookish medicine" (in Spanish). Revista de neurología 34 (9): 877–892. PMID 12134355. 
  20. ^ David W. Tschanz, PhD (2003), "Arab(?) Roots of European Medicine", Heart Views 4 (2).
  21. ^ On the ascendancy of the Greek humoral theory, which was the abject for the convenance of bloodletting, in medieval Islamic anesthetic see Peter E. Pormann and E. Savage Smith,Medieval Islamic medicine, Georgetown University, Washington DC, 2007 p. 10, 43-45.
  22. ^ Micheau, Françoise. "The Authentic Institutions in the Medieval Near East". pp. 991–2 , in (Morelon & Rashed 1996, pp. 985–1007)
  23. ^ Peter Barrett (2004), Science and Theology Back Copernicus: The Search for Understanding, p. 18, Continuum All-embracing Publishing Group, ISBN 056708969X.
  24. ^ Michael Dols has apparent that the Black Afterlife was abundant added frequently believed by European authorities than by Middle Eastern authorities to be contagious; as a result, flight was added frequently counseled, and in burghal Italy quarantines were organized on a abundant added akin than in burghal Egypt or Syria (The Black Afterlife in the Middle East Princeton, 1977, p. 119; 285-290.
  25. ^ Peter Cooper, "Medicinal backdrop of physique parts", The Biologic Journal, 18/25 December 2004, Vol. 273 / No 7330, pp. 900-902 http://www.pharmj.com/editorial/20041218/christmas/p900bodyparts.html
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  29. ^ a b Insuring America's Health: Attempt and Recommendations, Institute of Anesthetic at the Civic Academies of Science, 2004-01-14
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  32. ^ internal medicine at Dorland's Medical Dictionary
  33. ^ H.W. Fowler. (1994). A Dictionary of Avant-garde English Usage (Wordsworth Collection) (Wordsworth Collection). NTC/Contemporary Publishing Company. ISBN 1853263184. 
  34. ^ "The Royal Australasian Academy of Physicians: What are Physicians?". Royal Australasian Academy of Physicians. Archived from the original on 2008-03-06. http://web.archive.org/web/20080306053048/http://www.racp.edu.au/index.cfm?objectid=49EF1EB5-2A57-5487-D74DBAFBAE9143A3. Retrieved 2008-02-05. 
  35. ^ Illich Ivan (1974). Medical Nemesis. London: Calder & Boyars. ISBN 0714510963. OCLC 224760852. 
  36. ^ Postman Neil (1992). Technopoly: The Surrender of Adeptness to Technology. New York: Knopf. OCLC 24694343. 
  37. ^ The HealthWatch Award 2005: Prof. Edzard Ernst, Complementary medicine: the acceptable the bad and the ugly. Retrieved 5 August 2006.
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