Hippocrates


Wokiwiki Hippocrates - Hippocrates : (GFDL, autors, history, edit)

Home

Hippocrates - Wikipedia, the chargeless encyclopedia

Hippocrates

From Wikipedia, the chargeless encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For added uses, see Hippocrates (disambiguation).
Hippocrates of Kos

Engraving by Peter Paul Rubens, 1638, address of the National Library of Medicine.1
Born ca. 460 BC
Kos, Greece
Died ca. 377 BC (aged about 83)
Larissa, Greece
Other names Greek: Ἱπποκράτης
Occupation Physician

Hippocrates of Cos or Hippokrates of Kos (ca. 460 BC – ca. 370 BC) - Greek: Ἱπποκράτης; Hippokrátēs was an ancient Greek physician of the Age of Pericles (Classical Athens), and is advised one of the a lot of outstanding abstracts in the history of medicine. He is referred to as the Western father of medicine234 in acceptance of his abiding contributions to the acreage as the architect of the Hippocratic Academy of medicine. This bookish academy revolutionized medicine in age-old Greece, establishing it as a conduct audible from added fields that it had frequently been associated with (notably theurgy and philosophy), appropriately establishing anesthetic as a profession.56

However, the achievements of the writers of the Corpus, the practitioners of Hippocratic medicine, and the accomplishments of Hippocrates himself are about commingled; appropriately actual little is accustomed about what Hippocrates in fact thought, wrote, and did. Nevertheless, Hippocrates is frequently portrayed as the paragon of the age-old physician. In particular, he is accustomed with abundantly advancing the analytical abstraction of clinical medicine, accretion up the medical ability of antecedent schools, and prescribing practices for physicians through the Hippocratic Oath, Bulk and added works.57

Contents

Biography

Asklepieion on Kos

Historians accede that Hippocrates was built-in about the year 460 BC on the Greek island of Kos (Cos), and became a acclaimed physician and abecedary of medicine. Added biographical information, however, is acceptable to be apocryphal (see Legends).8 Soranus of Ephesus, a 2nd-century Greek gynecologist,9 was Hippocrates' aboriginal biographer and is the antecedent of a lot of advice on Hippocrates' person. Advice about Hippocrates can aswell be activate in the writings of Aristotle, which date from the 4th aeon BC, in the Suda of the 10th aeon AD, and in the works of John Tzetzes, which date from the 12th aeon AD.510

Soranus wrote that Hippocrates' ancestor was Heraclides, a physician; his mother was Praxitela, babe of Tizane. The two sons of Hippocrates, Thessalus and Draco, and his son-in-law, Polybus, were his students. According to Galen, a afterwards physician, Polybus was Hippocrates' accurate successor, while Thessalus and Draco anniversary had a son alleged Hippocrates.1112

Soranus said that Hippocrates abstruse anesthetic from his ancestor and grandfather, and advised added capacity with Democritus and Gorgias. Hippocrates was apparently accomplished at the asklepieion of Kos, and took acquaint from the Thracian physician Herodicus of Selymbria. The alone ancillary acknowledgment of Hippocrates is in Plato's chat Protagoras, breadth Plato describes Hippocrates as "Hippocrates of Kos, the Asclepiad".1314 Hippocrates accomplished and accomplished anesthetic throughout his life, traveling at atomic as far as Thessaly, Thrace, and the Sea of Marmara.12 He apparently died in Larissa at the age of 83 or 90, admitting some accounts say he lived to be able-bodied over 100; several adapted accounts of his afterlife exist.12

Hippocratic theory

"It is appropriately with absorption all-powerful nor added angelic than added diseases, but has a accustomed could could could cause from the originates like added affections. Men absorption its attributes and could could could cause as all-powerful from benightedness and wonder..."

On the Angelic Disease15

Hippocrates is accustomed with getting the aboriginal physician to adios superstitions, legends and behavior that accustomed abnormal or all-powerful armament with causing illness. Hippocrates was accustomed by the aggregation of Pythagoras of allying aesthetics and medicine.16 He afar the conduct of anesthetic from religion, assertive and arguing that ache was not a abuse inflicted by the gods but rather the artefact of ecology factors, diet, and active habits. Indeed there is not a individual acknowledgment of a mystical affliction in the absoluteness of the Hippocratic Corpus. However, Hippocrates did plan with abounding aesthetics that were based on what is now accustomed to be incorrect anatomy and physiology, such as Humorism.171819

Ancient Greek schools of anesthetic were breach (into the Knidian and Koan) on how to accord with disease. The Knidian academy of anesthetic focused on diagnosis. Anesthetic at the time of Hippocrates knew about annihilation of animal analysis and analysis because of the Greek taboo abhorrent the anatomization of humans. The Knidian academy appropriately bootless to analyze if one ache acquired abounding accessible alternation of symptoms.20 The Hippocratic academy or Koan academy accomplished greater success by applying accustomed diagnoses and acquiescent treatments. Its focus was on accommodating affliction and prognosis, not diagnosis. It could finer amusement diseases and accustomed for a abundant development in analytic practice.2122

Hippocratic anesthetic and its aesthetics are far removed from that of avant-garde medicine. Now, the physician focuses on specific analysis and specialized treatment, both of which were consort by the Knidian school. This about-face in medical anticipation back Hippocrates' day has acquired austere criticism over the accomplished two millennia, with the aloofness of Hippocratic analysis getting the accountable of decidedly able denunciations; for example, the French doctor M. S. Houdart alleged the Hippocratic analysis a "meditation aloft death".23

Humorism and crisis

Main article: Humorism

The Hippocratic academy captivated that all affliction was the aftereffect of an alterity in the physique of the four humours - fluids which in bloom were by itself according in admeasurement (pepsis).24 If the four humours, blood, black bile, yellow bile and phlegm, were not in antithesis (dyscrasia, acceptation "bad mixture"), a getting would become ailing and abide that way until the antithesis was somehow restored. Hippocratic analysis was directed appear abating this balance. For instance, application citrus was anticipation to be benign if aplomb was overabundant.25

Another important abstraction in Hippocratic anesthetic was that of a crisis, a point in the progression of ache at which either the affliction would activate to celebration and the accommodating would accede to death, or the adverse would action and accustomed processes would accomplish the accommodating recover. Afterwards a crisis, a backsliding ability follow, and again accession chief crisis. According to this doctrine, crises tend to action on critical days, which were declared to be a anchored time afterwards the abbreviating of a disease. If a crisis occurred on a day far from a critical day, a backsliding ability be expected. Galen believed that this abstraction originated with Hippocrates, admitting it is accessible that it predated him.26

A cartoon of a Hippocratic bench from a Byzantine copy of Galen's plan in the 2nd aeon AD

Hippocratic anesthetic was apprehensive and passive. The ameliorative access was based on "the healing ability of nature" ("vis medicatrix naturae" in Latin). According to this doctrine, the physique contains aural itself the ability to re-balance the four humours and alleviate itself (physis).24 Hippocratic analysis focused on artlessly abatement this accustomed process. To this end, Hippocrates believed "rest and apathy [were] of basic importance".27 In general, the Hippocratic anesthetic was actual affectionate to the patient; analysis was gentle, and emphasized befitting the accommodating apple-pie and sterile. For example, alone apple-pie baptize or wine were anytime acclimated on wounds, admitting "dry" analysis was preferable. Soothing balms were sometimes employed.28

Hippocrates was afraid to administrate drugs and appoint in specialized analysis that ability prove to be abominably chosen; ambiguous analysis followed a ambiguous diagnosis.2829 However, almighty drugs were acclimated on assertive occasions.30 This acquiescent access was actual acknowledged in alleviative almost simple ailments such as torn basic which appropriate traction to amplitude the ashen arrangement and abate burden on the afflicted area. The Hippocratic bench and added accessories were acclimated to this end.

One of the strengths of Hippocratic anesthetic was its accent on prognosis. At Hippocrates' time, alleviative analysis was absolutely immature, and about the best affair that physicians could do was to appraise an affliction and abet its acceptable progression based aloft abstracts calm in abundant case histories.1931

Professionalism

A amount of age-old Greek surgical tools. On the larboard is a trephine; on the right, a set of scalpels. Hippocratic anesthetic fabricated acceptable use of these tools.32

Hippocratic anesthetic was notable for its austere professionalism, conduct and accurate practice.33 The Hippocratic plan On the Physician recommends that physicians consistently be well-kempt, honest, calm, understanding, and serious. The Hippocratic physician paid accurate absorption to all aspects of his practice: he followed abundant blueprint for, "lighting, personnel, instruments, accession of the patient, and techniques of bandaging and splinting" in the age-old operating room.34 He even kept his fingernails to a absolute length.35

The Hippocratic Academy gave accent to the analytic doctrines of ascertainment and documentation. These doctrines behest that physicians almanac their allegation and their alleviative methods in a actual bright and cold manner, so that these annal may be anesthetized down and active by added physicians.12 Hippocrates fabricated careful, approved agenda of abounding affection including complexion, pulse, fever, pains, movement, and excretions.31 He is said to accept abstinent a patient's beating if demography a case history to apperceive if the accommodating lied.36 Hippocrates continued analytic observations into ancestors history and environment.37 "To him anesthetic owes the art of analytic analysis and observation".19 For this reason, he may added appropriately be termed as the "Father of Clinical Medicine".38

Direct contributions to medicine

Clubbing of fingers in a accommodating with Eisenmenger's syndrome; aboriginal declared by Hippocrates, clubbing is aswell accustomed as "Hippocratic fingers"

Hippocrates and his followers were aboriginal to call abounding diseases and medical conditions. He is accustomed acclaim for the aboriginal description of clubbing of the fingers, an important analytic assurance in abiding suppurative lung disease, lung cancer and cyanotic affection disease. For this reason, clubbed fingers are sometimes referred to as "Hippocratic fingers".39 Hippocrates was aswell the aboriginal physician to call Hippocratic face in Prognosis. Shakespeare abundantly alludes to this description if autograph of Falstaff's afterlife in Act II, Scene iii. of Henry V.4041

Hippocrates began to assort illnesses as acute, chronic, endemic and epidemic, and use agreement such as, "exacerbation, relapse, resolution, crisis, paroxysm, peak, and convalescence."3142 Accession of Hippocrates' aloft contributions may be activate in his descriptions of the symptomatology, concrete findings, surgical analysis and cast of thoracic empyema, i.e. suppuration of the lining of the chest cavity. His commodity abide accordant to abreast acceptance of pulmonary medicine and surgery.43 Hippocrates was the aboriginal accurate chest surgeon and his allegation are still valid.43

The Hippocratic academy of anesthetic declared able-bodied the ailments of the animal rectum and the analysis thereof, admitting the school's poor approach of medicine. Hemorrhoids, for instance, admitting believed to be acquired by an balance of acerbity and phlegm, were advised by Hippocratic physicians in almost avant-garde ways.4445 Cautery and excision are declared in the Hippocratic Corpus, in accession to the adopted methods: ligating the hemorrhoids and dehydration them with a hot iron. Added treatments such as applying assorted salves are appropriate as well.4647 Today, "treatment [for hemorrhoids] still includes burning, strangling, and excising".44 Also, some of the axiological concepts of proctoscopy categorical in the Bulk are still in use.4445 For example, the uses of the abdominal speculum, a accustomed medical device, are discussed in the Hippocratic Corpus.45 This constitutes the age-old recorded advertence to endoscopy.4849

Hippocratic Corpus

Main article: Hippocratic Corpus
A twelfth-century Byzantine arrangement of the Oath in the anatomy of a cross

The Hippocratic Bulk (Latin: Corpus Hippocraticum) is a accumulating of about seventy aboriginal medical works from age-old Greece, accounting in Ionic Greek. The catechism of whether Hippocrates himself was the columnist of the bulk has not been actually answered,50 but the volumes were apparently produced by his acceptance and followers.51 Because of the array of subjects, autograph styles and credible date of construction, advisers accept Hippocratic Bulk could not accept been accounting by one getting (Ermerins numbers the authors at nineteen).30 The bulk was attributed to Hippocrates in antiquity, and its teaching about followed attempt of his; appropriately it came to be accustomed by his name. It ability be the charcoal of a library of Kos, or a accumulating aggregate in the 3rd aeon BC in Alexandria.1334

The Hippocratic Bulk contains textbooks, lectures, research, addendum and abstract essays on assorted capacity in medicine, in no accurate order.5052 These works were accounting for adapted audiences, both specialists and laymen, and were sometimes accounting from opposing appearance points; cogent contradictions can be activate amid works in the Corpus.53 Notable a part of the treatises of the Bulk are The Hippocratic Oath; The Book of Prognostics; On Regimen in Acute Diseases; Aphorisms; On Airs, Waters and Places; Instruments of Reduction; On The Angelic Disease; etc.30

Hippocratic Oath

Main article: Hippocratic Oath

The Hippocratic Oath, a seminal certificate on the ethics of medical practice, was attributed to Hippocrates in antique although new advice shows it may accept been accounting afterwards his death. This is apparently the a lot of acclaimed certificate of the Hippocratic Corpus. Recently the actuality of the document's columnist has appear beneath scrutiny. While the Oath is rarely acclimated in its aboriginal anatomy today, it serves as a foundation for other, agnate oaths and laws that ascertain acceptable medical convenance and morals. Such derivatives are consistently taken today by medical graduates about to access medical practice.135455

Legacy

Mural painting assuming Galen and Hippocrates. 12th century; Anagni, Italy

Hippocrates is broadly advised to be the "Father of Medicine".51 His contributions revolutionized the convenance of medicine; but afterwards his afterlife the advance stalled.56 So admired was Hippocrates that his commodity were abundantly taken as too abundant to be bigger aloft and no cogent advancements of his methods were fabricated for a continued time.1327 The centuries afterwards Hippocrates' afterlife were apparent as abundant by astern movement as by added advancement. For instance, "after the Hippocratic period, the convenance of demography analytic case-histories died out...", according to Fielding Garrison.57

After Hippocrates, the next cogent physician was Galen, a Greek who lived from 129 to 200 AD. Galen perpetuated Hippocratic medicine, affective both avant-garde and backward.58 In the Middle Ages, Arabs adopted Hippocratic methods.59 Afterwards the European Renaissance, Hippocratic methods were active in Europe and even added broadcast in the 19th century. Notable a part of those who active Hippocrates' accurate analytic techniques were Sydenham, Heberden, Charcot and Osler. Henri Huchard, a French physician, said that these revivals accomplish up "the accomplished history of centralized medicine".60

Image

A conventionalized angel in a Roman "portrait" apprehension (19th aeon engraving)

According to Aristotle's testimony, Hippocrates was accustomed as "The Abundant Hippocrates".61 Concerning his disposition, Hippocrates was aboriginal portrayed as a "kind, dignified, old country doctor'" and afterwards as "stern and forbidding".13 He is absolutely advised wise, of actual abundant ability and abnormally as actual practical. Francis Adams describes him as "strictly the physician of acquaintance and accustomed sense".20

Hippocrates statue, Parnassus Ave. in foreground of the Robert H. Crede Ambulatory Affliction Center of UCSF

His angel as the wise, old doctor is able by busts of him, which abrasion ample beards on a channelled face. Abounding physicians of the time wore their hair in the appearance of Jove and Asklepius. Accordingly, the busts of Hippocrates that we accept could be alone adapted versions of portraits of these deities.56 Hippocrates and the behavior that he embodied are advised medical ideals. Fielding Garrison, an ascendancy on medical history, stated, "He is, aloft all, the archetype of that flexible, critical, well-poised attitude of mind, anytime on the anchor for sources of error, which is the actual aspect of the accurate spirit".60 "His figure... stands for all time as that of the ideal physician”, according to A Abbreviate History of Medicine, alarming the medical profession back his death.62

Legends

"Life is short, [the] art long, befalling fleeting, agreement treacherous, acumen difficult."

Aphorisms i.1.

Most belief of Hippocrates' activity are acceptable to be apocryphal because of their aberration with actual evidence, and because agnate or identical belief are told of added abstracts such as Avicenna and Socrates, suggesting a allegorical origin. Even during his life, Hippocrates' acclaim was great, and belief of amazing cures arose. For example, Hippocrates was declared to accept aided in the healing of Athenians during the Plague of Athens by lighting abundant fires as "disinfectants" and agreeable in added treatments. There is a adventure of Hippocrates abating Perdiccas, a Macedonian king, of "love sickness". Neither of these accounts is corroborated by any historians and they are appropriately absurd to accept anytime occurred.636465

Kos town: The Plane Tree of Hippocrates, beneath which Hippocrates is said to accept worked.66

Another fable apropos how Hippocrates alone a academic appeal to appointment the cloister of Artaxerxes, the King of Persia.67 The authority of this is accustomed by age-old sources but denied by some avant-garde ones, and is appropriately beneath contention.68 Accession annual states that Democritus was declared to be mad because he laughed at everything, and so he was beatific to Hippocrates to be cured. Hippocrates diagnosed him as alone accepting a blessed disposition. Democritus has back been alleged "the bedlam philosopher".69

Not all belief of Hippocrates portrayed him in a absolute manner. In one legend, Hippocrates is said to accept fled afterwards ambience blaze to a healing temple in Greece. Soranus of Ephesus, the antecedent of this story, names the temple as the one of Knidos. About centuries later, the Byzantine Greek grammarian John Tzetzes, writes that Hippocrates austere down his own temple, the Temple of Cos, apperception that he did it to advance a monopoly of medical knowledge. This annual is actual abundant in battle with acceptable estimations of Hippocrates' personality. Added legends acquaint of his resurrection of Augustus's nephew; this accomplishment was allegedly created by the adjustment of a bronze of Hippocrates and the enactment of a captain in his account in Rome.12636570

Genealogy

Hippocrates' allegorical ancestor traces his benevolent ancestor anon to Asklepius and his affectionate ancestor to Heracles.30 According to Tzetzes's Chiliades, the ahnentafel of Hippocrates II is:71

An angel of Hippocrates on the attic of the Asclepieion of Kos, with Asklepius in the middle

1. Hippocrates II. “The Ancestor of Medicine”
2. Heraclides
4. Hippocrates I.
8. Gnosidicus
16. Nebrus
32. Sostratus III.
64. Theodorus II.
128. Sostratus, II.
256. Thedorus
512. Cleomyttades
1024. Crisamis
2048. Dardanus
4096. Sostatus
8192. Hippolochus
16384. Podalirius
32768. Asklepius

Namesakes

Some analytic affection and signs accept been alleged afterwards Hippocrates as he is believed to be the aboriginal getting to call those. Hippocratic face is the change produced in the aspect by death, or continued sickness, boundless evacuations, boundless hunger, and the like. Clubbing, a aberration of the fingers and fingernails, is aswell accustomed as Hippocratic fingers. Hippocratic succussion is the centralized aqueous babble of hydropneumothorax or pyopneumothorax. Hippocratic bench (a accessory which uses astriction to aid in ambience bones) and Hippocratic cap-shaped bandage are two accessories alleged afterwards Hippocrates.72 Hippocratic Corpus and Hippocratic Oath are aswell his namesakes. The alcohol hypocras is aswell believed to be invented by Hippocrates. Risus sardonicus, a abiding spasming of the face anatomy may aswell be termed the Hippocratic Smile.

In the avant-garde age, a lunar atrium has been alleged Hippocrates. The Hippocratic Museum, a museum on the Greek island of Kos is committed to him. In the Harry Potter series, the capital healer on Arthur Weasley's ward's name was Hippocrates Smethwyck. The Hippocrates Project is a affairs of the New York University Medical Center to enhance apprenticeship through use of technology. Project Hippocrates (an acronym of "HIgh PerfOrmance Computing for Robot-AssisTEd Surgery") is an accomplishment of the Carnegie Mellon Academy of Computer Science and Shadyside Medical Center, "to advance avant-garde planning, simulation, and beheading technologies for the next bearing of computer-assisted surgical robots."73 Both the Canadian Hippocratic Registry and American Hippocratic Registry are organizations of physicians who advocate the attempt of the aboriginal Hippocratic Oath as adored through alteration amusing times.

Notes

  1. ^ National Library of Anesthetic 2006
  2. ^ Useful accustomed and alien angle of the ancestor of avant-garde medicine, Hippocrates and his abecedary Democritus., U.S. National Library of Medicine.
  3. ^ Hippocrates, Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2006. Microsoft Corporation. Archived 2009-10-31.
  4. ^ Strong, W.F.; Cook, John A. (July 2007), "Reviving the Asleep Greek Guys" (dead link), Global Media Journal, Indian Edition, ISSN: 1550-7521, http://www.manipal.edu/gmj/issues/jul07/strong.php 
  5. ^ a b c Garrison 1966, pp. 92–93
  6. ^ Nuland 1988, p. 5
  7. ^ Garrison 1966, p. 96
  8. ^ Nuland 1988, p. 4
  9. ^ Britannica 2006
  10. ^ Nuland 1988, p. 7
  11. ^ Adams 1891, p. 19
  12. ^ a b c d e Margotta 1968, p. 66
  13. ^ a b c d e Martí-Ibáñez 1961, pp. 86–87
  14. ^ Plato 380 B.C.
  15. ^ Plato 400 B.C.
  16. ^ Adams 1891, p. 4
  17. ^ Jones 1868, p. 11
  18. ^ Nuland 1988, pp. 8–9
  19. ^ a b c Garrison 1966, pp. 93–94
  20. ^ a b Adams 1891, p. 15
  21. ^ Margotta 1968, p. 67
  22. ^ Leff & Leff 1956, p. 51
  23. ^ Jones 1868, pp. 12–13
  24. ^ a b Garrison 1966, p. 99
  25. ^ Boylan 2006
  26. ^ Jones 1868, pp. 46,48,59
  27. ^ a b Margotta 1968, p. 73
  28. ^ a b Garrison 1966, p. 98
  29. ^ Singer & Underwood 1962, p. 35
  30. ^ a b c d Encyclopedia Britannica 1911
  31. ^ a b c Garrison 1966, p. 97
  32. ^ Adams 1891, p. 17
  33. ^ Garrison 1966
  34. ^ a b Margotta 1968, p. 64
  35. ^ Rutkow 1993, pp. 24–25
  36. ^ Martí-Ibáñez 1961, p. 88
  37. ^ Margotta 1968, p. 68
  38. ^ Leff & Leff 1956, p. 45
  39. ^ Schwartz, Richards & Goyal 2006
  40. ^ Singer & Underwood 1962, p. 40
  41. ^ Margotta 1968, p. 70
  42. ^ Martí-Ibáñez 1961, p. 90
  43. ^ a b Major 1965
  44. ^ a b c Jóhannsson 2005, p. 11
  45. ^ a b c Jani 2005, pp. 24–25
  46. ^ Jóhannsson 2005, p. 12
  47. ^ Mann 2002, pp. 1, 173
  48. ^ Shah 2002, p. 645
  49. ^ NCEPOD 2004, p. 4
  50. ^ a b Singer & Underwood 1962, p. 27
  51. ^ a b Hanson 2006
  52. ^ Rutkow, p. 23
  53. ^ Singer & Underwood 1962, p. 28
  54. ^ Jones 1868, p. 217
  55. ^ Buqrat Aur Uski Tasaneef by Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman, Tibbia College Magazine, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India, 1966, p. 56-62.
  56. ^ a b Garrison 1966, p. 100
  57. ^ Garrison 1966, p. 95
  58. ^ Jones 1868, p. 35
  59. ^ Leff & Leff 1956, p. 102
  60. ^ a b Garrison 1966, p. 94
  61. ^ Jones 1868, p. 38
  62. ^ Singer & Underwood 1962, p. 29
  63. ^ a b Adams 1891, pp. 10–11
  64. ^ Jones 1868, p. 37
  65. ^ a b Smith 1870, p. 483
  66. ^ National Library of Anesthetic 2000
  67. ^ Pinault 1992, p. 1
  68. ^ Adams 1891, pp. 12–13
  69. ^ Internet Encyclopedia of Aesthetics 2006
  70. ^ Jones 1868, p. 24
  71. ^ Adams 1891
  72. ^ Fishchenko & Khimich 1986
  73. ^ Project Hippocrates 1995

References

Find added about Hippocrates on Wikipedia's sister projects:
Definitions from Wiktionary
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Quotations from Wikiquote
Source texts from Wikisource
Images and media from Commons
News stories from Wikinews
Learning resources from Wikiversity
Greek Wikisource has aboriginal altercation accompanying to this article:
A woodcut of the abridgement of a dislocated accept with a Hippocratic device

Further reading


v • d • e
Ancient anaesthesia
Plants/animals
People
Abulcasis • Avenzoar • Avicenna • Celsus • Dioscorides • Galen • Hippocrates • Rhazes • Sabuncuoğlu • Sushrutha • Theophrastus • Zhang
Compounds
v • d • e
Ancient Greece topics
Timeline
Geography
Life
People
Others
Buildings
Arts
Sciences
Language
Writing

'

Safe Pharmacy Big Pharmacy Phonecards Best Payday Loans Safe Payday Loans