Glycolysis
Glycolysis (from glycose, an beforehand term1 for glucose + -lysis degradation) is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose, C6H12O6, into pyruvate, CH3COCOO− + H+. The free energy arise in this action is acclimated to anatomy the high-energy compounds ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and NADH (reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide).
Glycolysis is a audible arrangement of ten reactions involving ten average compounds (one of the accomplish involves two intermediates). The intermediates accommodate admission credibility to glycolysis. For example, a lot of monosaccharides, such as fructose, glucose, and galactose, can be adapted to one of these intermediates. The intermediates may aswell be anon useful. For example, the average dihydroxyacetone phosphate is a antecedent of the glycerol that combines with blubbery acids to anatomy fat.
Glycolysis is anticipation to be the archetype of a accepted metabolic pathway. It occurs, with variations, in about all organisms, both aerobic and anaerobic. The avant-garde accident of glycolysis indicates that it is one of the a lot of age-old accepted metabolic pathways.2
The a lot of accepted blazon of glycolysis is the Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas pathway(EMP pathway), which was aboriginal apparent by Gustav Embden, Otto Meyerhof and Jakub Karol Parnas. Glycolysis aswell refers to added pathways, such as the Entner–Doudoroff pathway and assorted heterofermentative and homofermentative pathways. However, the altercation actuality will be bound to the Embden-Meyerhof pathway.
Contents |
Overview
The all-embracing acknowledgment of glycolysis is:
| D-[Glucose] | [Pyruvate] | ||||
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+ 2 [NAD]+ + 2 [ADP] + 2 [P]i |  |
2 |  |
+ 2 [NADH] + 2 H+ + 2 [ATP] |
The use of symbols in this blueprint makes it arise asymmetric with account to oxygen atoms, hydrogen atoms, and charges. Atom antithesis is maintained by the two phosphate (Pi) groups3:
- each exists in the anatomy of a hydrogen phosphate anion (HPO42-), dissociating to accord 2 H+ overall
- each liberates an oxygen atom if it binds to an ADP (adenosine diphosphate) molecule, accidental 2 O overall
Charges are counterbalanced by the aberration amid ADP and ATP. In the cellular environment, all three hydroxy groups of ADP abstract into -O- and H+, giving ADP3-, and this ion tends to abide in an ionic band with Mg2+, giving ADPMg-. ATP behaves analogously except that it has four hydroxy groups, giving ATPMg2-. If these differences forth with the accurate accuse on the two phosphate groups are advised together, the net accuse of -4 on anniversary ancillary are balanced.
For simple anaerobic fermentations, the metabolism of one atom of glucose to two molecules of pyruvate has a net crop of two molecules of ATP. A lot of beef will again backpack out added reactions to 'repay' the acclimated NAD+ and aftermath a final artefact of ethanol or lactic acid. Abounding bacilli use asleep compounds as hydrogen acceptors to change the NAD+.
Cells assuming aerobic respiration amalgamate abundant added ATP, but not as allotment of glycolysis. These added aerobic reactions use pyruvate and NADH + H+ from glycolysis. Eukaryotic aerobic respiration produces about 34 added molecules of ATP for anniversary glucose molecule, about a lot of of these are produced by a awfully altered apparatus to the substrate-level phosphorylation in glycolysis.
The lower-energy production, per glucose, of anaerobic respiration about to aerobic respiration, after-effects in greater alteration through the alleyway beneath hypoxic (low-oxygen) conditions, unless accession sources of anaerobically-oxidizable substrates, such as blubbery acids, are found.
Elucidation of the pathway
In 1860, Louis Pasteur apparent that microorganisms are amenable for fermentation. In 1897, Eduard Buchner begin that extracts of assertive beef can could could could could cause fermentation. In 1905, Arthur Harden and William Young bent that a heat-sensitive high-molecular-weight subcellular atom (the enzymes) and a heat-insensitive low-molecular-weight cytoplasm atom (ADP, ATP and NAD+ and added cofactors) are appropriate calm for beverage to proceed. The data of the alleyway were eventually bent by 1940, with a aloft ascribe from Otto Meyerhof and some years after by Luis Leloir. The better difficulties in chargeless the intricacies of the alleyway were due to the absolute abbreviate lifetime and low steady-state concentrations of the intermediates of the fast glycolytic reactions.
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This area requires expansion. |
Sequence of reactions
Preparatory phase
The aboriginal 5 accomplish are admired as the basic (or investment) phase, aback they absorb action to catechumen the glucose into two three-carbon amoroso phosphates (G3P).
| The aboriginal footfall in glycolysis is phosphorylation of glucose by a ancestors of enzymes alleged hexokinases to anatomy glucose 6-phosphate (G6P). This acknowledgment consumes ATP, but it acts to accumulate the glucose absorption low, announcement connected carriage of glucose into the corpuscle through the claret film transporters. In addition, it blocks the glucose from aperture out - the corpuscle lacks transporters for G6P. Glucose may alternatively be from the phosphorolysis or hydrolysis of intracellular starch or glycogen.
In animals, an isozyme of hexokinase alleged glucokinase is aswell acclimated in the liver, which has a abundant lower affection for glucose (Km in the around of accustomed glycemia), and differs in authoritative properties. The altered substrate affection and alternating adjustment of this agitator are a absorption of the role of the alarmist in advancement claret amoroso levels. Cofactors: Mg2+ |
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| G6P is again rearranged into fructose 6-phosphate (F6P) by glucose phosphate isomerase. Fructose can aswell admission the glycolytic alleyway by phosphorylation at this point.
The change in anatomy is an isomerization, in which the G6P has been adapted to F6P. The acknowledgment requires an enzyme, phosphohexose isomerase, to proceed. This acknowledgment is advisedly capricious beneath accustomed corpuscle conditions. However, it is about apprenticed avant-garde because of a low absorption of F6P, which is consistently captivated during the next footfall of glycolysis. Beneath altitude of top F6P concentration, this acknowledgment readily runs in reverse. This abnormality can be explained through Le Chatelier's Principle. |
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| The action bulk of accession ATP in this footfall is justified in 2 ways: The glycolytic action (up to this step) is now irreversible, and the action supplied destabilizes the molecule. Because the acknowledgment catalyzed by Phosphofructokinase 1 (PFK-1) is not agilely absolute favorable, it is, in essence, irreversible, and a altered alleyway accept to be acclimated to do the about-face about-face during gluconeogenesis. This makes the acknowledgment a key authoritative point (see below). This is aswell the rate-limiting step.
The aforementioned acknowledgment can aswell be catalysed by pyrophosphate abased phosphofructokinase (PFP or PPi-PFK), which is begin in a lot of plants, some bacteria, archea, and protists, but not in animals. This agitator uses pyrophosphate (PPi) as a phosphate donor instead of ATP. It is a capricious reaction, accretion the adaptability of glycolytic metabolism.4 A rarer ADP-dependent PFK agitator another has been articular in archaean species.5 Cofactors: Mg2+ |
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| Destabilizing the atom in the antecedent acknowledgment allows the hexose ring to be breach by aldolase into two triose sugars, dihydroxyacetone phosphate, a ketone, and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, an aldehyde. There are two classes of aldolases: chic I aldolases, present in animals and plants, and chic II aldolases, present in fungi and bacteria; the two classes use altered mechanisms in cleaving the ketose ring. |
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| Triosephosphate isomerase rapidly interconverts dihydroxyacetone phosphate with glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (GADP) that accretion added into glycolysis. This is advantageous, as it directs dihydroxyacetone phosphate down the aforementioned alleyway as glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, simplifying regulation. |
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Pay-off phase
The added bisected of glycolysis is accepted as the bribery phase, characterised by a net accretion of the energy-rich molecules ATP and NADH. Aback glucose leads to two triose sugars in the basic phase, anniversary acknowledgment in the bribery appearance occurs alert per glucose molecule. This yields 2 NADH molecules and 4 ATP molecules, arch to a net accretion of 2 NADH molecules and 2 ATP molecules from the glycolytic alleyway per glucose.
| The triose sugars are dehydrogenated and inorganic phosphate is added to them, basic 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate.
The hydrogen is acclimated to abate two molecules of NAD+, a hydrogen carrier, to accord NADH + H+ for anniversary triose. Hydrogen atom antithesis and allegation antithesis are both maintained because the phosphate (Pi) accumulation in actuality exists in the anatomy of a hydrogen phosphate anion (HPO42-),3 which dissociates to accord the added H+ ion and gives a net allegation of -3 on both sides. |
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| This footfall is the enzymatic alteration of a phosphate accumulation from 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate to ADP by phosphoglycerate kinase, basic ATP and 3-phosphoglycerate. At this step, glycolysis has able the break-even point: 2 molecules of ATP were consumed, and 2 new molecules accept now been synthesized. This step, one of the two substrate-level phosphorylation steps, requires ADP; thus, if the corpuscle has affluence of ATP (and little ADP), this acknowledgment does not occur. Because ATP decays almost bound if it is not metabolized, this is an important authoritative point in the glycolytic pathway.
ADP in actuality exists as ADPMg-, and ATP as ATPMg2-, acclimation the accuse at -5 both sides. Cofactors: Mg2+ |
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| Phosphoglycerate mutase now forms 2-phosphoglycerate. |
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| Enolase next forms phosphoenolpyruvate from 2-phosphoglycerate.
Cofactors: 2 Mg2+: one "conformational" ion to alike with the carboxylate accumulation of the substrate, and one "catalytic" ion that participates in the dehydration. |
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| A final substrate-level phosphorylation now forms a atom of pyruvate and a atom of ATP by agency of the agitator pyruvate kinase. This serves as an added authoritative step, agnate to the phosphoglycerate kinase step.
Cofactors: Mg2+ |
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Regulation
Glycolysis is adapted by slowing down or dispatch up assertive accomplish in the glycolysis pathway. This is able by inhibiting or activating the enzymes that are involved. The accomplish that are adapted may be bent by artful the change in chargeless energy, ΔG, for anniversary step. If a step's articles and reactants are in equilibrium, again the footfall is affected to not be regulated. Aback the change in chargeless action is aught for a arrangement at equilibrium, any footfall with a chargeless action change abreast aught is not getting regulated. If a footfall is getting regulated, again that step's agitator is not converting reactants into articles as fast as it could, constant in a accession of reactants, which would be adapted to articles if the agitator were operating faster. Aback the acknowledgment is thermodynamically favorable, the change in chargeless action for the footfall will be negative. A footfall with a ample abrogating change in chargeless action is affected to be regulated.
Free action changes
| Compound | Concentration / mM |
|---|---|
| glucose | 5.0 |
| glucose-6-phosphate | 0.083 |
| fructose-6-phosphate | 0.014 |
| fructose-1,6-bisphosphate | 0.031 |
| dihydroxyacetone phosphate | 0.14 |
| glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate | 0.019 |
| 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate | 0.001 |
| 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate | 4.0 |
| 3-phosphoglycerate | 0.12 |
| 2-phosphoglycerate | 0.03 |
| phosphoenolpyruvate | 0.023 |
| pyruvate | 0.051 |
| ATP | 1.85 |
| ADP | 0.14 |
| Pi | 1.0 |
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The change in chargeless energy, ΔG, for anniversary footfall in the glycolysis alleyway can be affected application ΔG = ΔG°' + RTln Q, area Q is the reaction quotient. This requires alive the concentrations of the metabolites. All of these ethics are accessible for erythrocytes, with the barring of the concentrations of NAD+ and NADH. The arrangement of NAD+ to NADH is about 1, which after-effects in these concentrations abandoning out in the acknowledgment quotient. (Since NAD+ and NADH action on adverse abandon of the reactions, one will be in the numerator and the added in the denominator.)
Using the abstinent concentrations of anniversary step, and the accepted chargeless action changes, the absolute chargeless action change can be calculated.
| Step | Reaction | ΔG°' / (kJ/mol) | ΔG / (kJ/mol) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | glucose + ATP4- → glucose-6-phosphate2- + ADP3- + H+ | -16.7 | -34 |
| 2 | glucose-6-phosphate2- → fructose-6-phosphate2- | 1.67 | -2.9 |
| 3 | fructose-6-phosphate2- + ATP4- → fructose-1,6-bisphosphate4- + ADP3- + H+ | -14.2 | -19 |
| 4 | fructose-1,6-bisphosphate4- → dihydroxyacetone phosphate2- + glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate2- | 23.9 | -0.23 |
| 5 | dihydroxyacetone phosphate2- → glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate2- | 7.56 | 2.4 |
| 6 | glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate2- + Pi2- + NAD+ → 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate4- + NADH + H+ | 6.30 | -1.29 |
| 7 | 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate4- + ADP3- → 3-phosphoglycerate3- + ATP4- | -18.9 | 0.09 |
| 8 | 3-phosphoglycerate3- → 2-phosphoglycerate3- | 4.4 | 0.83 |
| 9 | 2-phosphoglycerate3- → phosphoenolpyruvate3- + H2O | 1.8 | 1.1 |
| 10 | phosphoenolpyruvate3- + ADP3- + H+ → pyruvate- + ATP4- | -31.7 | -23.0 |
From barometer the physiological concentrations of metabolites in a corpuscle it seems that about seven of the accomplish in glycolysis are in calm for that corpuscle type. Three of the accomplish — the ones with ample abrogating chargeless action changes — are not in calm and are referred to as irreversible; such accomplish are about accountable to regulation.
Step 5 in the bulk is apparent abaft the added steps, because that footfall is a side-reaction that can abatement or admission the absorption of the average glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate. That admixture is adapted to dihydroxyacetone phosphate by the agitator triose phosphate isomerase, which is a catalytically perfect enzyme; its bulk is so fast that the acknowledgment can be affected to be in equilibrium. The actuality that ΔG is not aught indicates that the absolute concentrations in the corpuscle are not accurately known.
Biochemical logic
The actuality of added than one point of adjustment indicates that intermediates amid those credibility admission and leave the glycolysis alleyway by added processes. For example, in the aboriginal adapted step, hexokinase converts glucose into glucose-6-phosphate. Instead of continuing through the glycolysis pathway, this average can be adapted into glucose accumulator molecules, such as glycogen or starch. The about-face reaction, breaking down, e.g., glycogen, produces mainly glucose-6-phosphate; absolute little chargeless glucose is formed in the reaction. The glucose-6-phosphate so produced can admission glycolysis after the aboriginal ascendancy point.
In the added adapted footfall (the third footfall of glycolysis), phosphofructokinase converts fructose-6-phosphate into fructose-1,6-bisphosphate, which again is adapted into glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate and dihydroxyacetone phosphate. The dihydroxyacetone phosphate can be removed from glycolysis by about-face into glycerol-3-phosphate, which can be acclimated to anatomy triglycerides.8 On the converse, triglycerides can be torn down into blubbery acids and glycerol; the latter, in turn, can be converted into dihydroxyacetone phosphate, which can admission glycolysis after the added ascendancy point.
Regulation
The three regulated enzymes are hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase.
The flux through the glycolytic alleyway is adapted in acknowledgment to altitude both central and alfresco the cell. The bulk in alarmist is adapted to accommodated aloft cellular needs: (1) the assembly of ATP, (2) the accouterment of architecture blocks for biosynthetic reactions, and (3) to lower claret glucose, one of the aloft functions of the liver. If claret amoroso falls, glycolysis is apoplectic in the alarmist to acquiesce the about-face process, gluconeogenesis. In glycolysis, the reactions catalyzed by hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase are finer irreversible in a lot of organisms. In metabolic pathways, such enzymes are abeyant sites of control, and all three enzymes serve this purpose in glycolysis.
Hexokinase
In animals, adjustment of claret glucose levels by the alarmist is a basic allotment of homeostasis. In alarmist cells, added G6P (glucose-6-phosphate) may be adapted to G1P for about-face to glycogen, or it is alternatively adapted by glycolysis to acetyl-CoA and again citrate. Balance citrate is exported to the cytosol, area ATP citrate lyase will change acetyl-CoA and OAA. The acetyl-CoA is again acclimated for fatty acerbic synthesis and cholesterol synthesis, two important agency of utilizing balance glucose if its absorption is top in blood. Alarmist contains both hexokinase and glucokinase; the closing catalyses the phosphorylation of glucose to G6P and is not inhibited by G6P. Thus, it allows glucose to be adapted into glycogen, blubbery acids, and cholesterol even if hexokinase action is low.9 This is important if claret glucose levels are high. During hypoglycemia, the glycogen can be adapted aback to G6P and again adapted to glucose by the liver-specific agitator glucose 6-phosphatase. This about-face acknowledgment is an important role of alarmist beef to advance claret sugars levels during fasting. This is analytical for academician function, aback the academician utilizes glucose as an action antecedent beneath a lot of conditions.
Phosphofructokinase
Phosphofructokinase is an important ascendancy point in the glycolytic pathway, aback it is one of the irreversible accomplish and has key allosteric effectors, AMP and fructose 2,6-bisphosphate (F2,6BP).
Fructose 2,6-bisphosphate (F2,6BP) is a absolute almighty activator of phosphofructokinase (PFK-1), which is synthesised if F6P is phosphorylated by a added phosphofructokinase (PFK2). In liver, if claret amoroso is low and glucagon elevates cAMP, PFK2 is phosphorylated by protein kinase A. The phosphorylation inactivates PFK2, and accession area on this protein becomes alive as fructose 2,6-bisphosphatase, which converts F2,6BP aback to F6P. Both glucagon and epinephrine could could could could cause top levels of cAMP in the liver. The aftereffect of lower levels of alarmist fructose-2,6-bisphosphate is a abatement in action of phosphofructokinase and an admission in action of fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase, so that gluconeogenesis (in essence, "glycolysis in reverse") is favored. This is constant with the role of the alarmist in such situations, aback the acknowledgment of the alarmist to these hormones is to absolution glucose to the blood.
ATP competes with AMP for the allosteric effector website on the PFK enzyme. ATP concentrations in beef are abundant college than those of AMP, about 100-fold higher,10 but the absorption of ATP does not change added than about 10% beneath physiological conditions, admitting a 10% bead in ATP after-effects in a 6-fold admission in AMP.11 Thus, the appliance of ATP as an allosteric effector is questionable. An admission in AMP is a aftereffect of a abatement in energy charge in the cell.
Citrate inhibits phosphofructokinase if activated in vitro by acceptable the inhibitory aftereffect of ATP. However, it is ambiguous that this is a allusive aftereffect in vivo, because citrate in the cytosol is activated mainly for about-face to acetyl-CoA for fatty acid and cholesterol synthesis.
Pyruvate kinase
This agitator catalyzes the endure footfall of glycolysis, in which pyruvate and ATP are formed. Adjustment of this agitator is discussed in the capital topic, pyruvate kinase.
Post-glycolysis processes
The all-embracing action of glycolysis is:
- glucose + 2 NAD+ + 2 ADP + 2 Pi → 2 pyruvate + 2 NADH + 2 H+ + 2 ATP + 2 H2O
If glycolysis were to abide indefinitely, all of the NAD+ would be acclimated up, and glycolysis would stop. To acquiesce glycolysis to continue, bacilli accept to be able to burn NADH aback to NAD+.
Fermentation
One adjustment of accomplishing this is to artlessly accept the pyruvate do the oxidation; in this process, the pyruvate is adapted to lactate (the conjugate base of lactic acid) in a action alleged lactic acerbic fermentation:
- pyruvate + NADH + H+ → lactate + NAD+
This action occurs in the bacteria circuitous in authoritative yogurt (the lactic acerbic causes the milk to curdle). This action aswell occurs in animals beneath hypoxic (or partially-anaerobic) conditions, found, for example, in busy anatomy that are fatigued of oxygen, or in infarcted affection beef cells. In abounding tissues, this is a cellular endure resort for energy; a lot of beastly tissue cannot advance anaerobic respiration for an continued breadth of time.
Some organisms, such as yeast, catechumen NADH aback to NAD+ in a action alleged ethanol fermentation. In this process, the pyruvate is adapted aboriginal to acetaldehyde and carbon dioxide, again to ethanol.
Lactic acerbic fermentation and ethanol fermentation can action in the absence of oxygen. This anaerobic beverage allows abounding single-cell bacilli to use glycolysis as their alone action source.
Anaerobic respiration
In the aloft two examples of fermentation, NADH is breakable by appointment two electrons to pyruvate. However, anaerobic bacilli use a avant-garde array of compounds as the terminal electron acceptors in cellular respiration: nitrogenous compounds, such as nitrates and nitrites; sulfur compounds, such as sulfates, sulfites, sulfur dioxide, and basal sulfur; carbon dioxide; adamant compounds; manganese compounds; azure compounds; and uranium compounds.
Aerobic respiration
In aerobic organisms, a circuitous apparatus has acquired to use the oxygen in air as the final electron acceptor of respiration.
- First, pyruvate is adapted to acetyl-CoA and CO2 aural the mitochondria in a action alleged pyruvate decarboxylation.
- Second, the acetyl-CoA enters the citric acerbic cycle, or Krebs Cycle, area it is absolutely breakable to carbon dioxide and water, bearing yet added NADH.
- Third, the NADH is breakable to NAD+ by the electron carriage chain, application oxygen as the final electron acceptor. This action creates a "hydrogen ion gradient" beyond the close film of the mitochondria.
- Fourth, the proton acclivity is acclimated to aftermath a ample bulk of ATP in a action alleged oxidative phosphorylation.
Intermediates for added pathways
This commodity concentrates on the catabolic role of glycolysis with attention to converting abeyant actinic action to accessible actinic action during the blaze of glucose to pyruvate. However, abounding of the metabolites in the glycolytic alleyway are aswell acclimated by anabolic pathways, and, as a consequence, alteration through the alleyway is analytical to advance a accumulation of carbon skeletons for biosynthesis.
In addition, not all carbon entering the alleyway leaves as pyruvate and may be extracted at beforehand stages to accommodate carbon compounds for added pathways.
These metabolic pathways are all acerb codicillary on glycolysis as a antecedent of metabolites:
- Gluconeogenesis
- Lipid metabolism
- Pentose phosphate pathway
- Citric acerbic cycle, which in about-face leads to:
From an anabolic metabolism perspective, the NADH has a role to drive constructed reactions, accomplishing so by anon or alongside abbreviation the basin of NADP+ in the corpuscle to NADPH, which is accession important abbreviation abettor for biosynthetic pathways in a cell.
Glycolysis in disease
Genetic diseases
Glycolytic mutations are about attenuate due to accent of the metabolic pathway, this agency that the majority of occurring mutations aftereffect in an disability for the corpuscle to respire, and accordingly could could could could cause the afterlife of the corpuscle at an aboriginal stage. However, some mutations are apparent with one notable archetype getting Pyruvate kinase deficiency, arch to abiding hemolytic anemia.
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This area requires expansion. |
Cancer
Malignant rapidly-growing tumor beef about accept glycolytic ante that are up to 200 times college than those of their accustomed tissues of origin. This abnormality was aboriginal declared in 1930 by Otto Warburg and is referred to as the Warburg effect. The Warburg hypothesis claims that blight is primarily acquired by dysfunctionality in mitochondrial metabolism, rather than because of amoral advance of cells. A amount of theories accept been avant-garde to explain the Warburg effect.
This top glycolysis bulk has important medical applications, as top aerobic glycolysis by annihilative tumors is activated clinically to analyze and adviser assay responses of cancers by imaging uptake of 2-18F-2-deoxyglucose (FDG) (a radioactive adapted hexokinase substrate) with positron discharge tomography (PET).1213
There is advancing assay to affect mitochondrial metabolism and amusement blight by abbreviation glycolysis and appropriately craving annihilative beef in assorted new ways, including a ketogenic diet.
Alzheimer's disease
Disfunctioning glycolysis or glucose metabolism in fronto-temporo-parietal and cingulate cortices has been associated with Alzheimer's disease 14, apparently due to the decreased amyloid β (1-42) (Aβ42) and added tau, phosphorylated tau in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) 15
Alternative nomenclature
Some of the metabolites in glycolysis accept accession names and nomenclature. In part, this is because some of them are accepted to added pathways, such as the Calvin cycle.
| This article | Alternative names | Alternative nomenclature | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | glucose | Glc | dextrose | |
| 3 | fructose 6-phosphate | F6P | ||
| 4 | fructose 1,6-bisphosphate | F1,6BP | fructose 1,6-diphosphate | FBP, FDP, F1,6DP |
| 5 | dihydroxyacetone phosphate | DHAP | glycerone phosphate | |
| 6 | glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate | GADP | 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde | PGAL, G3P, GALP,GAP,TP |
| 7 | 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate | 1,3BPG | glycerate 1,3-bisphosphate, glycerate 1,3-diphosphate, 1,3-diphosphoglycerate |
PGAP, BPG, DPG |
| 8 | 3-phosphoglycerate | 3PG | glycerate 3-phosphate | PGA, GP |
| 9 | 2-phosphoglycerate | 2PG | glycerate 2-phosphate | |
| 10 | phosphoenolpyruvate | PEP | ||
| 11 | pyruvate | Pyr | pyruvic acid | |
See also
- Pentose phosphate pathway
- Gluconeogenesis
- Fermentation (biochemistry)
- Pyruvate decarboxylation
- Citric acerbic cycle
- Triose kinase
- carbohydrate catabolism
- Cori cycle
References
- ^ Webster's New International Dictionary of the English Language, 2nd ed. (1937) Merriam Company, Springfield, Mass.
- ^ Romano AH, Conway T. (1996) Evolution of carbohydrate metabolic pathways. Res Microbiol. 147(6-7):448-55 PMID 9084754
- ^ a b Lane, A. N.; Fan, T. W. -M.; Higashi, R. M. (2009). "Metabolic acidosis and the accent of counterbalanced equations". Metabolomics 5: 163–165. doi:10.1007/s11306-008-0142-2.
- ^ Reeves, R. E.; South D. J., Blytt H. J. and Warren L. G. (1974). "Pyrophosphate: D-fructose 6-phosphate 1-phosphotransferase. A new agitator with the glycolytic action 6-phosphate 1-phosphotransferase". J Biol Chem 249 (24): 7737–7741. PMID 4372217.
- ^ Selig, M.; Xavier K. B., Santos H. and Schönheit P. (1997). "Comparative assay of Embden-Meyerhof and Entner-Doudoroff glycolytic pathways in hyperthermophilic archaea and the bacillus Thermotoga". Arch Microbiol 167 (4): 217–232. PMID 9075622.
- ^ Garrett, R.; Grisham, C. M. (2005). Biochemistry (3rd ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole. p. 584. ISBN 0-534-49011-6.
- ^ Garrett, R.; Grisham, C. M. (2005). Biochemistry (3rd ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole. pp. 582–583. ISBN 0-534-49011-6.
- ^ Berg, J. M.; Tymoczko, J. L.; Stryer, L. (2007). Biochemistry (6th ed.). New York: Freeman. p. 622. ISBN 0-534-49011-6.
- ^ Voet D., and Voet J. G. (2004). Biochemistry 3rd Edition (New York, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.)
- ^ Beis I., and Newsholme E. A. (1975). The capacity of adenine nucleotides, phosphagens and some glycolytic intermediates in comatose anatomy from vertebrates and invertebrates. Biochem J 152, 23-32.
- ^ Voet D., and Voet J. G. (2004). Biochemistry 3rd Edition (New York, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.).
- ^ "PET Scan: PET Scan Info Reveals ...". http://www.petscaninfo.com/. Retrieved December 5, 2005.
- ^ "4320139 549..559". http://biogenomica.com/PDFs/PauwelsPETandHexokinase.pdf. Retrieved December 5, 2005.
- ^ Hunt, A . et al.; Schonknecht, P; Henze, M; Seidl, U; Haberkorn, U; Schroder, J (2007). "Reduced bookish glucose metabolism in patients at accident for Alzheimer's disease". Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging 155 (2): 147–154. doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2006.12.003. PMID 17524628.
- ^ Hunt, A . et al.; Van Der Flier, WM; Blankenstein, MA; Bouwman, FH; Van Kamp, GJ; Barkhof, F; Scheltens, P (2008). "CSF and MRI markers apart accord to the analysis of Alzheimer's disease". Neurobiology of Aging 29 (5): 669–675. doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2006.11.018. PMID 17208336.
External links
- A Simplified Glycolysis Animation (Adobe Flash Required)
- A Detailed Glycolysis Animation provided by IUBMB (Adobe Flash Required)
- The Glycolytic enzymes in Glycolysis at Protein Data Bank
- Glycolytic aeon with animations at wdv.com
- Metabolism, Cellular Respiration and Photosynthesis - The Virtual Library of Biochemistry and Corpuscle Biology at biochemweb.org
- notes on glycolysis at rahulgladwin.com
- The actinic argumentation abaft glycolysis at ufp.pt
- Expasy biochemical pathways poster at ExPASy
- Mnemonic at medicalmnemonics.com 317 5468
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